Skip to main content

Full text of "Ecclesiastical chronology;"

See other formats 


/Z?2 


m 


?*^)7 


'■(^ 


: 


;.•;.-' 


V, 


m 


j/a'.  Tn<2> 


UMTI-VD   HTiS  I'KN    ()!•'  AM  E  1  m  «A. 


4i 


i 


p- 


ECCLESIASTICAL   CHRONOLOGY. 


London  : 

Printed  by  A.  Spottiswoode, 

New-  Street-  Square, 


@ttlt£iK£titul  @t)X(molaQg ; 


OR, 


ANNALS 

OF 

THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH, 

FROM   ITS   FOUNDATION  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME  : 

CONTAINING  A 

VIEW  OF  GENERAL  CHURCH  HISTORY, 

AND  THE 

COURSE  OF  SECULAR  EVENTS; 


THE  LIMITS  OF  THE  CHURCH,  AND  ITS 

RELATION  TO  THE  STATE  ; 
CONTROVERSIES  ; 


SECTS  AND  PARTIES  ; 

RITES,  INSTITUTIONS,  DISCIPLINE 

ECCLESIASTICAL  WRITERS. 


THE  WHOLE  ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO  THE  ORDER  OF  DATES, 

AND 

DIVIDED   INTO   SEVEN    PERIODS. 

TO  WHICH  ARE  ADDED, 

LISTS  OF  COUNCILS,  AND  OF  POPES,  PATRIARCHS,  AND  ARCHBISHOPS 

OF  CANTERBURY. 


BY  THE  REV 


.  J.  E.  K 


IDDLE,  M.A. 


Author  of  "A  Manual  of  Christian  Antiquities,"  " Sermons, 
"A  Latin-English  Dictionary,"  &c. 


LONDON : 

LONGMAN,  ORME,  BROWN,  GREEN,  AND  LONGMANS, 


paternoster  row. 


1840. 


*0 


.^ 


X 


<\ 


^ 


\s> 


PREFACE. 


A  knowledge  of  Church  History  is  requisite  for  every 
Christian  scholar,  and  especially  for  every  student  of 
theology,  next  to  an  acquaintance  with  Holy  Scripture 
and  with  the  human  heart. 

The  due  cultivation  of  this  branch  of  study  is  a  work 
of  time  and  labour  ;  nor  can  the  subject  be  thoroughly 
understood  without  the  patient  examination  of  many 
voluminous  records,  and  other  works,  both  ancient  and 
modern.  This  field  of  inquiry  is,  therefore,  so  wide, 
that  it  cannot  be  explored,  in  all  its  parts,  by  the  mind 
of  any  individual  student.  And  the  scholar  who  may 
desire  to  throw  light  upon  ecclesiastical  history,  or  to 
deduce  from  it  any  important  principles,  would  do  well 
to  confine  his  attention  to  some  single  section  of 
events ;  or,  if  he  choose  to  survey  a  more  exten- 
sive series  of  facts  and  occurrences,  he  may  find  it 
profitable  to  regard  and  treat  them  under  some  peculiar 
point  of  view.  Thus  may  a  most  important  service  be 
performed  in  this  department  of  theological  literature. 

At  the  same  time,  a  compendious  view  of  the  whole 
range  of  ecclesiastical  history  has  its  use,  in  various 
ways,  and  to  large  classes  of  readers.  Such  an  outline 
is  valuable,  and  even  more  or  less  necessary,  —  as  a 
manual  for  younger  students,  — as  a  source  of  inform- 
ation for  those  persons  who  have  no  means  of  pur- 
suing the  study   to  its  full   extent, —  and  also  as  an 

a  3 


VI  PREFACE. 

auxiliary,  for   various  purposes,   in  the  hands  of  the 
more  advanced  ecclesiastical  scholar. 

Our  own  language  has  been  hitherto  extremely 
deficient  in  books  of  this  kind,  as  well  as  in  more 
elaborate  performances  in  the  department  of  Church 
History  ;  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  present  work  will 
meet  with  some  degree  of  favour  and  acceptance,  as 
being  an  attempt  to  supply  so  remarkable  a  want. 

Outlines  of  history  may  be  composed  either  in  the 
form  of  succinct  continuous  narrative,  or  in  the  shape 
of  annals.  Of  these  two  plans,  the  latter  has  been 
adopted  in  the  following  pages,  which  contain  an  enu- 
meration of  the  principal  subjects  of  Church  History 
arranged  in  chronological  order.  Several  advantages,  of 
great  importance,  have  been  thus  secured.  The  detail 
of  events  is  more  copious  and  explicit  than  any  which 
can  be  contained  in  a  compendium  of  this  size  when 
written  as  an  entire  narrative,  and  designed  to  exhibit 
a  regular  classification  of  facts  and  incidents.  The 
form  of  annals  has  also  its  peculiar  utility  with  reference 
to  the  philosophy  of  history,  inasmuch  as  it  serves  to 
point  out  and  illustrate  the  connection,  dependence, 
and  relations  of  events.  Accuracy  of  information  and 
truth  of  reasoning  is,  in  many  ways,  connected  with  a 
right  understanding  of  the  succession  of  those  events 
and  agents  whose  records  make  up  the  page  of  history. 
And,  to  some  minds  more  especially,  an  arrangement 
of  historical  facts  according  to  their  dates  is  peculiarly 
valuable  as  an  aid  to  memory.  It  may  be  observed, 
also,  that  the  historical  method  has  been  here  combined 
with  the  chronological  arrangement,  in  the  division  of 
the  whole  work  into  leading  periods,  and  in  the  de- 
scriptive or  narrative  style  of  those  articles  which  relate 


PREFACE.  Vll 


to  the  principal  subjects  of  ecclesiastical  record  ;  so 
that,  while  the  work  may  be  used  as  a  set  of  Chrono- 
logical Tables,  for  reference,  it  may  also  be  available  for 
the  reader  who  seeks  an  acquaintance  with  the  general 
outline  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  or  with  the  nature  and 
bearing  of  any  particular  event. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  recourse  has  been 
had  to  the  usual  sources  of  Church  History.  The 
chronological  and  synchronistic  Tables  of  several  emi- 
nent German  writers,  namely,  Walch,  Semler,  Seiler, 
Schrock,  and  Vater,  have  been  consulted  and  occasion- 
ally employed.  Several  hints  also  have  been  taken,  and 
a  few  passages  extracted,  from  the  valuable  compendium 
of  Guerike ;  — a  work  truly  excellent  of  its  kind, 
and  worthy  of  high  regard,  as  conveying  an  unusual 
amount  of  well  condensed  information,  and  as  being 
distinguished  by  general  accuracy,  and  written  on  sound 
philosophical  principles. 

The  study  of  Church  History  can  be  to  no  readers 
more  important  or  more  delightful  than  to  the  members 
of  our  own  Reformed  Church,  which  is  occupied  in  the 
simple  proclamation  of  divine  truth,  and  the  due  celebra- 
tion of  divine  worship,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  jjrotests 
against  theological  error,  ecclesiastical  usurpation,  and 
the  follies  of  vain  superstition.  Spiritual  tyranny,  su- 
perstition, and  fanaticism,  supported  by  ignorance  on 
the  one  hand,  and  by  deceitful  and  ambitious  preten- 
sions on  the  other,  have  been,  from  age  to  age,  the 
great  pests  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  have  presented 
grievous  obstacles  to  a  wide  dissemination,  and  a  pro- 
fitable reception,  of  the  pure  and  holy  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel.  Records  which  bear  upon  their  surface  this 
striking,  but  melancholy,  truth,  demand   the  humble, 


Vlll  PREFACE. 


serious,  and  candid  attention  of  every  member  of  the 
great  Christian  community.  We  may  learn  wisdom 
from  the  mistakes  of  ancient  churches  ;  humility  and 
charity  from  the  quarrels  and  dissensions  which  have 
subsisted  among  those  of  both  earlier  and  later  date ; 
and  a  devout  admiration  of  that  overruling  providence 
of  God,  v/hereby  divine  truth  has  been  preserved  even 
under  an  accumulation  of  human  errors,  and  the  lustre 
of  this  cherished  truth  has  been  made  to  appear  more 
glorious,  by  its  contrast  with  human  ignorance  and 
folly.  While  we  look  to  the  Bible,  and  the  Bible  alone, 
as  the  depository  and  rule  of  our  faith,  we  may  do  well 
to  consult  the  annals  of  the  Church  for  warnings 
against  those  manifold  perversions  to  which  truth  be- 
comes liable  in  the  hands  of  man/  And  may  not  the 
members  of  our  scriptural  communion  derive  from  the 
records  of  the  past  many  a  reason,  not  indeed  for  idle 
self-complacency,  arising  from  a  proud  comparison  of 
themselves  with  others,  but  yet  for  cheerful  thankful- 
ness to  the  Great  Disposer  of  all  events  and  the  Giver 
of  all  good?  Surely  we  have  abundant  cause  to  rejoice, 
with  gratitude,  in  the  consideration  that  we  are  mem- 
bers of  a  church  which  establishes  its  claims  to  respect, 
attachment,  and  support,  not  on  the  false  assumption  of 
any  inherent  authority,  —  not  on  the  assertion  of  its 
ancient  origin,  or  the  number  and  learning  of  its  mem- 
bers, —  but  on  its  efficiency  as  a  teacher  and  expositor 
of  divine  truth,  in  conformity  with  the  word  of  inspir- 
ation, —  on  its  value  as  a  guide  to  worship,  at  once 
rational  and  devout,  —  and  on  its  character  as  a  pro- 
moter of  zealous  and  well-directed  efforts  in  God's  ser- 
vice !  Well  may  we  recognize  our  happiness  in  being 
members  of  a  Christian  community  which  teaches  from 


PREFACE.  IX 

the  Bible,  and  not  from  tradition,  —  which  proclaims 
apostolical  truth,  instead  of  boasting  of  apostolical  suc- 
cession,—  which  builds  upon  the  sure  word  of  God, 
instead  of  appealing  to  the  forgeries  and  impostures  of 
human  fraud,  or  to  the  speculations  of  human  imbecility 
and   error,  —  and  which  is  bound,  by  its  own  funda- 
mental principles,  to  maintain  the  language  of  courtesy 
and  respect,  and  to  hold  out  the  right  hand  of  Christian 
fellowship,  towards   all  other  churches  in  which  the 
pure  word  of  God  is  preached,  and  the  sacraments  are 
duly  administered.     We   may   thank  God   also   that, 
while  our  church  has  rejected  the  claims  of  spiritual 
tyranny,  she  has  had  the  wisdom  to  retain  a  form  of 
good  government  which  has  subsisted,  under  various 
modifications,  from  the  apostles'  times,  and  is  eminently 
adapted  to  do  good  service  in  our  own  country  at  the 
present    day,    and   under    the   existing    condition   of 
society.    We  may,  moreover,  find  cause  for  rejoicing  in 
the  circumstance  that  our   communion,    after   having 
renounced  those   follies,   of  heathen   origin,  whereby 
the  beauty  of  Christian  worship  was  for  a  long  time 
tarnished,  is  yet  distinguished   by   that  reverence  for 
things  sacred,    and  that  attention  to  positive  institu- 
tions, outward  observances,  and  the  decencies  of  order, 
which  equally  accord  with  the  majesty  of  God  and  the 
nature   of  man,   and   are   suited  to  the  relation   that 
subsists  between  the  human  worshipper  and  the  great 
object  of  adoration.     And  we  may  feel  no  less  grateful 
in  remembering  that,   under  the  good  providence  of 
God,  we  have  been  incorporated  into  a  society  which, 
while  it  knows  nothing  of  the  fanaticism  of  early  ascetics, 
or  the  extravagances  of  more  modern  visionaries,  yet 
does  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  Religion,  rightly  so 


X  PREFACE. 

called,  is  not  only  truth  in  the  intellect  but  love  in  the 
heart,  not  merely  a  light  of  the  understanding  but  the 
life  of  the  soul  ;  existing  not  in  letter  but  in  spirit ; 
not  so  much  a  theme  of  abstract  and  retired  con- 
templation, as  a  principle  of  self-devotion  towards  God 
and  active  benevolence  towards  man, — the  spring  of 
lively  and  zealous  endeavour  in  the  ways  of  holiness 
and  virtue,  —  the  giver  of  glory  to  God  in  the  highest, 
and  the  fostering  patron  of  unfeigned  good- will  towards 
the  great  Christian  community  under  all  its  denomi- 
nations, and  towards  the  whole  family  of  mankind  in 
every  climate  under  heaven. 

J.  E.  R. 

Cheltenham, 
September  29th,  1840, 


CONTENTS. 


Preface  -  _  .      .     -  -  -  _  Page  v 

PERIOD  I. 

From  the  Foundation  of  the  Christian  Church  to  the  First 
General  Council,  A.  D.  33 — 325.  -  -  1 

PERIOD  II. 

From  the  First  General  Council  to  the  Death  of  Gregory 
the  First,  A.  D.  325—604.  .    -  -  -63 

PERIOD  III. 

From  the   Death   op  Gregory    the   First    to    the   Death   of 
Charlemagne,  A.  D.  604 — 814.  -  -  -  -   150 

PERIOD  IV. 
From   the    Death    of    Charlemagne    to    the    Pontificate   of 
Gregory  VII.,  A.  D.  814— 1073.        -  -  -  -184 

PERIOD  V. 

From  the  Accession  of  Gregory  VII.  to  the  Beginning  of  the 
Reformation,  A.  D.  1073— 1517.        -  -230 

PERIOD  VI. 
Era  of  the  Reformation,  A.  D.  1517 — 1555.         -  -  -  331 

PERIOD  VII. 
From  the  Reformation  to  the  present  Time,  A.  D.  1556 — 1837.  364 

Index  -.___..  477 


In  the  following  pages. 
The  asterisk  (#)  distinguishes  matter  relating  to  British  Churches. 

The  obelisk  (|)  is  equivalent  to  obiit ;  denoting  the  death  of  the 
individuals  to  whose  name  it  is  prefixed. 

In  the  column  of  dates,  a  dash  ( —  )  signifies  that  the  clause 
opposite  to  which  it  is  placed  relates  to  precisely  the  same  year  as 
that  last  mentioned.  When  a  blank  occurs,  the  reader  will  under- 
stand that  the  date  of  the  corresponding  historical  matter  is  more 
indefinite. 


ECCLESIASTICAL    CHRONOLOGY, 


PERIOD   I. 


FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHRISTIAN    CHURCH 
TO    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL. 

33— 325. 


33 


Tiberius,  Emperor. 
Pontius  Pilate,  Procurator  of  Judaea. 
During  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  the  Roman  power  was  at 
its  height.  The  empire  was  enlarged  in  several  directions. 
The  Jews  impatient  of  their  subjection  to  Rome. 


Crucifixion,  Resurrection,  and  Ascension  of 
OUR  LORD  AND  SAVIOUR,  JESUS  CHRIST, 
who  is  the  foundation  stone  of  the  Christian  Church,  and 
the  great  subject  of  Christian  doctrine. 

THE  DISPENSATION  OF  THE  SPIRIT  BEGINS. 
The  Apostles,  under  divine  agency,  become  the  found- 
ers of  Christian  churches. 


Baptism,  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  administered  according 
to  our  Saviour's  holy  institution. 

Assemblies  for  divine  worship,  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  Apostles,  probably  upon  the  model  of  the  synagogue. 

(Breaking  of  bread  ;  prayer;  psalmody;  preaching.) 


FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

33  Acts  of  Pilate.  Justin  Martyr  (Apol.  1.)  refers  to  some 

acts  or  despatches  of  Pilate,  perhaps  genuine. 


Soon  after  the  day  of  Pentecost,  the  number  of  disciples 
in  Jerusalem  amounted  to  more  than  five  thousand. 

Persecution  of  the  Apostles  at  first  not  very  severe  or 
successful  at  Jerusalem.  (Divisions  in  the  Sanhedrim  re- 
specting the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection.  Absence  of  the 
Roman  procurator,  who  resided  at  Csesarea,  and  went  to 
Jerusalem  only  on  the  great  festivals.) 


34)  34 — 41.     First  Period  of  Apostolic  History. 

Gospel  preached  to  the  Jews  in  Judaea,  Samaria,  and 
Antioch. 

Appointment  of  the  Seven  Deacons. 
(Deacons  probably  from  the  beginning.     The  seven  an 
addition  of  Hellenistic  officers  to  Jews  already  appointed.) 

Death  of  St.  Stephen. 

Pharisees  and  Sadducees  unite  in  persecuting  the  dis- 
ciples. Saul  active  in  the  persecution.  Consequent  dis- 
persion of  the  disciples,  a  means  of  the  more  extensive 
propagation  of  the  Gospel,  beyond  Palestine  and  Phoe- 
nicia, to  Antioch,  Cyprus,  and  Cyrene. 

35  First  apostolical  journey  of  St.  Peter. 

Acts  ix.  32. 

It  is  probable  that  all  the  Apostles  were  employed  in 
visiting  disciples  in  different  places,  as  well  as  in  founding 
churches ;  and  that  during  these  visits  they  established  a 
regular  ministry ;  that  is  to  say,  persons  were  appointed 
to  superintend  public  worship,  and  to  manage  the  funds 
of  Christian  societies,  subject  to  the  direction  and  advice 
of  the  Apostles. 

(al.  38.)  Conversion  of  St.  Paul. 

(But  some  suppose  this  event  to  have  taken  place  a 
few  months  only  after  our  Lord's  ascension.  Perhaps 
the  Apostle    resided   at  Tarsus    several   years   after  his 


Period.)        to  the  first  general  council.  3 

conversion,  during  which  time  his  preaching  was  confined 
to  that  neighbourhood.) 


The  doctrine  of  the  Church  during  this  period  is  con- 
tained in  the  books  of  Holy  Scripture. 


The  first  Christians  formed  a  common  fund,  from 
which  distribution  was  made  to  the  poorer  members  of 
the  Church ;  but  they  do  not  appear  to  have  established  a 
community  of  goods,  strictly  speaking;  except,  perhaps, 
in  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  for  a  time.  There  were 
rich  and  poor  among  Christians  when  the  Apostles  wrote. 

Feasts  of  charity  in  connection  with  the  Lord's  Supper. 


Simon  Magus  in  Samaria. 


Pontius  Pilate  banished.  Judaea  and  Samaria  annexed 
to  the  presidentship  of  Syria.     Persecution  relaxed. 

Caligula,  Emperor. 

Herod  Agrippa,  King  of  Galilee, 

The  reign  of  Caligula  was  favourable  to  the  growth  of 
the  infant  Church.  The  Jewish  authorities  anxious  to 
protect  themselves. 


Some  critics  (Le  Clerc ;  Eichhorn)  have  imagined  the 
existence  of  an  original  gospel  (Protevangelion),  on  the 
basis  of  which  the  four  now  extant  were  composed.  But 
this  appears  to  be  a  mere  speculation  or  theory,  deficient 
in  historical  and  critical  proof. 

(or  38.)  Probably,  the  Gospel  by  St.Mattheic,  in  Aramaic. 

The  existence  of  this  early  composition  is  deemed  pro- 
bable by  many,  who  join  in  rejecting  the  theory  of  the 
Protevangelion;  but  it  is  very  doubtful,  and  altogether 
denied  by  some  judicious  critics. 

The  fact  appears  to  be,  that  the  Gospel  was  at  first 
b  2 


40 


41 


42 


43 
44 


FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

contained  in  the  tradition,  or  oral  preaching,  of  the  eye- 
witnesses of  its  facts,  and  the  disciples  of  its  great  sub- 
ject.  

Barnabas  sent  to  Antioch. 
Church  of  Antioch  founded  by  Barnabas  and  by  other 
disciples  who  had  fled  from  Jerusalem  on  occasion  of  for- 
mer persecutions. 

Christianity  spreads  rapidly. 


Claudius,  Emperor. 
Herod  Agrippa,  King  of  all  Palestine. 


Conversion  of  Cornelius. 
(But  some  suppose  this  to  have  taken  place  as  early  as 
the  second  year  after  the  crucifixion.) 


41 — 45.  Second  Period  of  Apostolic  History. 
Gospel  preached  to  Jews  and  devout  Gentiles  (after  the 
conversion  of  Cornelius). 

The  disciples  first  called  Christians  at  Antioch. 

St.  Paul  at  Antioch  a  whole  year. 

Simon  Magus  at  Rome. 


The  sacred  seasons  now  observed  by  Christians  were, — 
the  Jewish  Sabbath,  and  the  Lord's  day,  weekly,  and  the 
Festival  of  the  Resurrection  annual.  Jewish  converts  ob- 
served also  other  times  and  seasons,  according  to  the 
Mosaic  institutions. 

Among  customs  of  the  apostolical  churches  may  also  be 
reckoned, —  the  holy  kiss,  fasting,  the  anointing  of  the  sick, 
and  imposition  of  hands  in  benediction,  on  appointment 
to  the  ministry,  and  on  other  occasions. 


James  the  Elder  put  to  death.     Peter  imprisoned. 


Death   of  Herod  Agrippa.     All  Palestine  a   Roman 

province. 

Cuspius  Fadus,  Procurator. 

Theudas,  a  Jewish  impostor,  beheaded. 


Period.)        to  the  first  general  council.  5 

Hitherto  the  labours  of  the  Apostles  had  been  confined 
to  Palestine. 

Paul  and  Barnabas  go  with  contributions  to  Jerusalem, 
and  return  to  Antioch  (Acts  xi.  30.). 

Presbyters  or  elders  had  been  appointed  at  Jerusalem 
some  time  before  this  event.  Perhaps  they  had  existed 
in  the  churches  of  provincial  towns  in  Judaea  even  before 
they  were  found  needful  at  Jerusalem. 


47,48 


Tiberius  Alexander,  Procurator  of  Judcea. 


St.  Paul's  first  apostolical  journey,  with  Barnabas. 

45 — 70.  Third  Period  of  Apostolic  History. 

Gospel  preached  to  idolatrous  Gentiles,  as  well  as 
to  Jews  and  Gentiles  (after  the  call  of  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas). But  converted  Gentiles  were  considered  as  dis- 
tinct in  some  respects,  until  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
a.d.  70. 

St.  Paul  leaves  St.  Luke  in  temporary  charge  of  the 
church  at  Philippi,  Silas  or  Silvanus  at  Bercea,  and 
Timothy  at  Thessalonica.  (Perhaps  Dionysius,  the  Are- 
opagite,  was  left  in  charge  of  the  church  at  Athens,  but 
there  is  no  proof  of  this.) 

(al.  49.)   Claudius  expels  the  Jews  from  Rome. 


Onkelos,  Chaldee  translator  of  the  Pentateuch,  h\ 


Sts.  Paul  and  Barnabas  resident  at  Antioch. 
Debates  at  Antioch  respecting  the  necessity  of  impo- 
sing  upon   the   Gentile  converts   circumcision  and   the 
keeping  of  the  whole  Mosaic  law. 


Cumanus  and  Felix,  Procurators  of  Judcea,  Samaria,  and 
Galilee. 

b  3 


6  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

49      (al.  52.)   Assembly   of   the    Apostles,    Elders,  and 
whole  Church  at  Jerusalem. 

(Question  brought  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  from  Antioch 
considered.  An  epistle  written,  containing  the  decision 
of  the  assembly.  Paul  and  Barnabas  return  to  Antioch. 
Circumcision  of  Gentile  converts  and  their  conformity  to  the 
whole  Mosaic  law  declared  unnecessary.) 


Gnosticism  at  Ephesus  and  other  places. 


(The  confession  of  faith,  commonly  called  The  Apostles' 
Creed,  ascribed  by  tradition  to  the  assembled  Twelve,  is  a 
compilation  of  later  date ;  but  it  faithfully  represents  the 
outlines  of  the  Apostles'  doctrine.) 


State  of  religion  among  Gentiles  and  Jews  in  the  Roman 
empire  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 

Among  the  heathen  a  general  scepticism  and  extreme 
impiety  had  been  succeeded,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  a  re- 
currence to  ancient  belief,  together  with  an  admixture  of 
Asiatic  and  Egyptian  superstition  ;  so  that,  among  the 
multitude,  unbelief  and  superstition  held  a  divided  sway. 
Among  educated  men  there  was  much  inquiry,  and 
several  systems  of  philosophy  were  in  vogue,  chiefly  that 
of  the  Stoics,  which  taught  men  to  seek  happiness  in  the 
exercise  of  innate  moral  power ;  and  that  of  the  Platonists, 
which  inculcated  a  dependence  on  a  higher  power,  and 
taught  men  to  seek  virtue  and  happiness  in  a  communion 
with  the  Supreme.  Stoicism  was  proud,  and  as  unsuc- 
cessful in  its  pretensions  as  it  was  vain ;  Platonism  was 
ineffectual,  because  it  could  not  teach  men  how  to  find  the 
good  which  it  proposed  to  their  apprehension. 

Among  the  Jews,  the  popular  religion  had  greatly  de- 
generated, and  was  characterised  by  pride  and  a  worldly 
spirit,  the  members  of  that  nation  regarding  themselves 
as  exclusively  the  favourites  of  Heaven,  and  being  de- 
sirous of  temporal  prosperity,  and  especially  of  deliver- 
ance from  the  Roman  yoke,  as  their  chief  good.  The 
theology  of  Palestine,  as  it  existed  among  its  divines  and 


Period.)        to  the  first  general  council.  7 

students,  was  comprised  in  the  three  forms  of  (so  called) 
orthodoxy,  rationalism,  and  mysticism ;  the  first  being 
the  system  of  the  Pharisees,  the  second  that  of  the  Sad- 
ducees,  the  third  that  of  the  Essenes.  At  the  same  time, 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria  had  constructed  a  peculiar  system 
by  their  adoption  of  Platonic  notions,  and  their  conse- 
quent habit  of  allegorising  Scripture.  Some  of  them 
received  the  Old  Testament  in  its  literal  as  well  as  its 
supposed  allegorical  sense,  but  others  rejected  the  literal 
meaning  altogether. 

50 — 53.  (al.  53—56.)  St.  Paul's  second  journey,  with 
Silas,  and  afterwards  Timothy  and  Luke,  through 
Syria,  Cilicia,  Lycaonia,  Phrygia,  Galatia,  and  Greece 
(Macedonia,  Athens,  Corinth). 

Barnabas  went  to  Cyprus  with  Mark. 


First  and  second  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians. 

(N.  B.  The  dates  assigned  by  some  chronologists  for 
the  several  books  of  the  New  Testament  are  a  few  years 
earlier  than  those  generally  received.) 

or  53.  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 


Claudius  Felix,  sole  Procurator  of  Judcea. 
Nero,  Emperor. 
Agrippa,   already   king  of  Trachonitis,    receives  the 
addition  of  Galilee,  and  some  towns  in  Trachonitis. 


54 — 58.  (al.56 — 60.)  St.  PauVs  third  journey  ;  Galatia, 
Phrygia,  Ephesus  (residence) ;  Macedonia,  Greece ;  Je- 
rusalem. 

Festus,  Procurator  of  Judcea. 

The  Ministers  of  the  Church  during  this  century  were — 
Apostles  and  their  assistants;  Evangelists;  Prophets; 
Elders  or  Bishops,  who  were  teachers  and  general  over- 
seers of  particular  churches ;  Deacons,  who  were  teachers, 
almoners,  and  general  assistants,  especially  of  presbyters  ; 
Deaconesses;  Widows. 

b  4 


56 

57 
58 


60 
61 


62 


FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

Judaizing    teachers    in    Asia    Minor.       Gnostic   and 
Judaizing  teachers  at  Corinth  and  Rome. 


First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 

or  58.  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 


St.  Paul  made  prisoner  at  Ccesarea. 


(al.  55.;  al.  63.)  St.  Paul  sent  to  Home,  where  he  ar- 
rived in  the  following  year. 


The  Gospel  by  St.  Matthew  in  Greek. 

Epistle  to  the  Ephesians.     Epistle  of  St.  James. 

The  Gospel  by  St.  Mark ;  between  the  years  60  and  63. 


About  this  time  St.  Mark  (probably)  founded  a  church 
at  Alexandria.  

Albinus,  Procurator  ofJudaa. 


or  63.  James    the  Just,   President  of  the  Church  of 
Jerusalem,  put  to  death. 


Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 
or  63.  Epistles  to  the  Philippians,  to  Philemon,  to  the 
Hebrews.  

53  St.  Paul  released. 

(After  his  release  he  probably  visited  Spain,  and  re- 
turned by  way  of  Crete  to  Jerusalem,  thence  to  Antioch 
in  Syria.)  

or  64.  Gospel  by  St.  Luke.     Acts  of  the  Apostles. 


64  The  burning  of  Rome. 

Persecution  at  Rome  under  Nero,  commonly  called 
The  First  Persecution, 

(It  lasted  four  years.  It  probably  extended  to  the 
provinces.  According  to  an  old  inscription,  it  raged  in 
Spain.) 


Period.)         to  the  first  general  council.  9 

Perhaps    about  this   time  St.  Paul   undertook  another 
journey ;  passing  through  Colosse,  Philippi,  Nicopolis  in 
Epirus,  Corinth,  Troas,  and  Crete,  to  Rome. 


First   Epistle   to    Timothy.       Epistle    to    Titus.       First 

Epistle  of  St.  Peter. 

or  65.     Epistle  of  St.  Jude. 

Second  Epistle  of  St.  Peter.     Second  Epistle  to  Timothy. 


Gessius  Florus,  Procurator  of  Judcea. 
There  are  traditions  to  the  effect  that  St.  Paul  planted 
Christianity  in  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain,  but  very  uncer- 
tain.    It  is  not  improbable  that  the  Gospel  was  preached 
in  those  countries  during  the  reign  of  Nero. 

St.  Paul  a  second  time  at  Rome;  imprisoned. 

The  Jewish  War  begins. 
Christians  retire  from  Jerusalem  to  Pella. 
St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  put  to  death  at  Rome. 


Epiphanius  says  that  the  founders  of  the  sects  of  the 
Nazarenes  and  Ebionites  were  among  the  Christians  who 
retired  to  Pella.  At  all  events,  the  Nazarenes,  or  Christ- 
ians who  strictly  adhered  to  the  Mosaic  Law,  began  to 
be  distinguished  as  a  sect  about  this  time.  —  Hitherto, 
converts  from  among  Jews  and  Devout  Gentiles  had  con- 
formed to  the  Mosaic  ceremonial ;  but  not  so  those  from 
among  Idolatrous  Gentiles. 


Galea,  Emperor. 
After  the  death  of  Nero,  an  opinion  prevailed  among 
Christians  that  he  had  not  destroyed  himself,  but  had 
retired  beyond  the   Euphrates  with   the   design   of  re- 
appearing as  Antichrist, 
or  69.     First,  Second,  and  Third  Epistles  of  St.  John. 


Otho  ;  —  Vitellius  ;  —  Vespasian,  Emperors. 


al.  72.     Destruction  of  Jerusalem. 


10  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH        (First 

Vespasian  did  not  persecute  the  Christians  as  such; 
but  probably  they  were  molested  during  his  reign  and 
that  of  Titus  by  the  demand  of  the  Jewish  capitation  tax. 


The  duties  and  office  of  ordinary  Christian  minis- 
ters, —  superiors  and  inferiors,  presbyters  and  deacons, 
7rps<r£uTsf>oi  diuxovoi  and  vswrepoi  diaxovoi,  —  probably  un- 
derwent continual  changes  and  modifications  during  the 
first  century,  according  to  circumstances,  and  the  wants  of 
particular  churches. — During  this  period  the  constitution 
of  the  church  was  not  uniform  and  settled :  it  contained 
the  elements  of  various  forms  of  government;  but  the 
system  of  subordination  (episcopacy)  soon  prevailed  in 
the  larger  communities ;  and,  in  the  course  of  the  next 
century,  it  predominated  to  the  exclusion  of  other  schemes 
(presbyterian ;  independent). 

79  Titus,  Emperor. 

81  Domitian,  Emperor. 


A  church  was  founded  at  Edessa  on  the  Euphrates,  pro- 
bably before  the  end  of  this  century. 

During  the  Apostolic  Age,  the  usual  designations  of  the 
professors  of  the  Gospel  were  the  following  :  —  Disciples ; 
Brethren  and  Sisters ;  Believers  ;    Saints ;  Christians. 


Gnosticism 
had  now  made  great  progress.  This  was  a  combination 
of  Oriental  and  Platonic  philosophy,  and  also,  in  some 
cases,  Judaism,  with  certain  elements  of  Christian  doctrine. 
The  system  was  subject  to  various  modifications  in  the 
hands  of  different  teachers  and  parties.  Its  prominent 
features  were ;  The  doctrine  of  Emanation; — The  doctrine 
of  Emanation  combined  with  that  of  Dualism  ;  and  this 
Dualism,  either  according  to  the  Oriental  scheme  (matter 
an  evil  principle  and  active),  or  the  Alexandrian  (matter 
an  evil  principle,  but  passive) ;  —  Admission  or  rejection 
of  the  Jewish  Scriptures :  Judaizing  and  Anti-Jewish 
Gnostics. 


Period.)         to  the  first  general  council.  II 

The  Gnostics  regarded  Christ  as  one  of  their  supposed 
later  emanations  from  the  Deity,  and  as  having  been  sent 
into  the  world  to  remedy  the  disorders  occasioned  by  the 
fancied  Demiurgus  or  creature  iEon.  They  thus  denied 
the  real  divinity  of  Christ ;  and  at  the  same  time  they 
destroyed  the  doctrine  of  the  union  of  the  two  natures,  or 
of  our  Lord's  true  and  proper  humanity,  by  framing  a 
distinction  between  Christ  and  Jesus,  and,  in  some  cases, 
supposing  the  latter  to  have  been  a  mere  phantom. 


Persecution  under  Domitian,  commonly  called 
The  Second  Persecution. 

Search  after  the  descendants  of  David  in  Judaea. 
Grandsons  of  St.  Jude  examined  and  acquitted.  — Christ- 
ians return  to  Jerusalem  before  the  end  of  Domitian's  reign. 


Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 

The  Apostles  and  their  companions  established  Christ- 
ianity in  Palestine,  Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia, 
Greece,  Italy,  and  Egypt. — The  principal  churches  which 
they  founded  were  at  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Rome,  and 
Alexandria;  also  at  Ephesus,  Colosse,  Laodicea,  Thessa- 
lonica,  Philippi,  Corinth,  Smyrna,  Sardis,  and  in  Crete. 
—  Thus  far  authentic  history. 

Christian  converts  chiefly  from  the  middling  and  lower 
classes  of  society. 

Christian  virtue  flourishes 
both  in  theory  and  practice.    It  consists  in  an  honest  and 
cheerful  endeavour  to  discharge  all  duties  to  God  and 
man.     The  source  or  foundation  of  this  virtue  is  a  simple 
and  lively  faith  in  Christ  the  Saviour  of  the  world. 

But  there  were  not  wanting  hypocrites  or  false  pro- 
fessors, —  vicious  and  disorderly  members,  —  sins  of  in- 
firmity, and  other  defects,  which  are  inseparable  from  the 
condition  of  the  visible  church  upon  earth. 

Discipline,  extending  to  all  classes  of  Christians  alike, — 
was  either  extraordinary  or  ordinary :  the  former  consist- 
ing in  punishments  inflicted  by  the  Apostles,  in  virtue  of 


12  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH        (First 

their  miraculous  powers  and  divine  authority ;  the  latter 
in  the  exclusion  of  offenders  from  communion  with  the 
church  in  acts  of  divine  worship. 

The  first  controversies  among  Christians  originated  with 
certain  Judaizing  teachers  (false  Apostles).  They  took 
their  rise  at  Antioch,  and  although  decided  by  the  assem- 
bly of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  and  by  the  express  de- 
clarations of  St.  Paul,  they  were  renewed  or  continued  in 
various  churches.  The  chief  subjects  of  debate  were,  —  the 
necessity  of  imposing  the  Mosaic  Law  upon  converts  from 
heathenism,  —  the  doctrine  of  justification,  or  the  found- 
ation and  terms  of  man's  acceptance  with  God,  —  the 
Abrahamic  covenant,  —  the  use  of  meat  offered  in  sacri- 
fice to  idols,  —  the  apostleship  of  St.  Paul. 


96  Nerva,  Emperor. 

Nerva  recals  the  exiles,  and  makes  some  regulations 
for  the  protection  of  Christians. 


Menander.  —  Docetce ;  so  called  from  their  having  be- 
lieved the  body  of  Jesus  to  have  been  a  phantom,  —  thus 
denying  the  proper  humanity  of  our  Saviour. 

Cerinthus,  in  Asia  Minor,  a  Judaizing  Gnostic. 


or  97.    Revelation  of  St.  John. 
97  or  98.    Gospel  by  St.  John, 

(The  Gnostic  tenets,  containing  an  admixture  of  im- 
perfect or  distorted  Christian  doctrine,  not  only  seduced 
many  from  the  faith  of  the  Gospel,  but  probably  obscured 
or  perplexed  the  tenets  of  some  who  remained,  on  the 
whole,  firm  in  their  belief  of  essential  Christian  truth.) 


The  ministry  of  Prophets  in  the  Church  had  probably 
ceased  before  this  time. 


98  Trajan,  Emperor. 

Dissensions  at  Corinth  relating  to  discipline.     Some 
presbyters  dismissed.     Deputation  from  the  Christians  at 


Period.)         to  the  first  general  council.  13 

Rome  with  a  view  to  restore  unanimity.  Episcopal  form 
of  government  not  yet  established  at  Corinth.  No  au- 
thoritative interference  on  the  part  of  Rome ;  —  an  epistle 
written  in  the  name  of  the  whole  Church,  by  Clement,  its 
president  or  bishop. 

The  Church  of  Rome  superior  to  all  others  in  numbers 
and  in  wealth.  No  claim  to  authority  over  other  churches 
until  the  close  of  the  second  century. 

N.B.  The  epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Church  of  Corinth 
is  the  only  genuine  work  of  any  uninspired  Christian  writer 
of  the  first  century  now  extant. 


100 


Death  of  St.  John,  about  this  time. 


No  evidence  of  any  persecution  at  Rome  during  the 
reign  of  Trajan.  But  an  edict  prohibiting  Hetseriae,  or 
secret  societies,  was  brought  to  bear  against  the 
Christians. 

Churches  were  now  established  in  the  principal  cities  of 
Asia  Minor,  in  Palestine,  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Italy.  The 
heathen  manifest  opposition  and  hostility. 


Constitution  and  Government  of  the  Church. 

The  Apostles  or  their  representatives  exercised  a  ge- 
neral superintendence  over  the  churches  by  divine  au- 
thority, attested  by  miraculous  gifts.  The  subordinate 
government  of  each  particular  church  was  vested  in  itself; 
that  is  to  say,  the  whole  body  elected  its  minister  and 
officers,  and  was  consulted  concerning  all  matters  of  im- 
portance. All  churches  were  independent  of  each  other, 
but  were  united  by  the  bonds  of  holy  charity,  sympathy, 
and  friendship.    But  this  state  of  things  did  not  last  long. 

In  other  words.  The  original  constitution  of  the 
church  was  a  supreme  Theocracy,  together  with  a  subor- 
dinate Democracy,  modified  by  an  elective  Aristocracy. 
The  head  of  the  whole  body  was  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
ruling  by  his  Spirit,  through  the  immediate  agency  of  the 
Apostles.    This  Theocracy  was  designed  to  be  perpetual ; 


14  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH        (First 

and  the  Holy  Gospels,  and  other  inspired  writings  of  the 
New  Testament,  were  composed  and  left  as  the  repre- 
sentatives, or,  so  to  speak,  successors,  of  the  Apostles  to  the 
end  of  time.  In  like  manner,  the  subordinate  Democracy, 
with  its  elective  Aristocracy  of  rulers  and  teachers,  was 
designed  to  subsist  and  to  exercise  its  functions  conti- 
nually, for  the  good  of  all  men,  and  to  the  glory  of  the 
sovereign  Lord  and  Saviour.  But,  in  process  of  time, 
the  Theocracy  was  greatly  neglected,  - —  the  Democracy 
oppressed  and  almost  annihilated  by  the  Aristocracy,  — 
and  the  Aristocracy  itself  converted,  first  into  an  ambi- 
tious Oligarchy,  and  lastly  into  a  tyrannical  Despotism. 

A  real,  living  Unity,  and  a  well  regulated  Liberty, 
characterised  the  early  constitution  of  the  Church.  But 
liberty  was  afterwards  sacrificed  to  unity ;  and  this  unity 
itself  degenerated  into  a  merely  external,  forced,  and  dead 
Union,  —  which  became  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  Op- 
pression, and  to  the  growth  of  the  Hierarchy. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  the  changes  which  took  place 
in  the  government  and  institutions  of  the  Church,  two 
particulars  especially  deserve  to  be  borne  in  mind.  First, 
That  the  immoderate  claims,  aggression,  and  undue  ex- 
altation of  the  Hierarchy,  are  not  always  to  be  attributed 
to  ambition  or  evil  design  on  the  part  of  the  clergy.  Much 
allowance  is  to  be  made  for  indiscreet  zeal,  errors  in 
judgment,  and  the  circumstances  of  the  times.  Secondly, 
That  the  evils  which  were  introduced  into  the  system, 
were  wonderfully  overruled  by  the  Saviour's  Providence 
for  the  ultimate  good  of  the  Church.  The  fictitious  claims 
of  the  clergy  in  general,  and  the  lordly  pretensions  of 
bishops,  —  the  mistakes  of  weak  men  and  the  designs 
of  the  ambitious,  —  the  overcharged  ceremonial, —  the 
growth  of  superstition, —  and  the  general  degeneracy  and 
secularisation  of  the  Christian  body,  were  made  subservient 
to  its  preservation  and  establishment;  —  and  eventually, 
we  hope,  to  its  complete  and  most  beneficial  development, 
—  its  universal  efficiency  in  promoting 

Glory  to  God  in  the  highest, 
and  on  Earth  Peace,  good  will  towards  men. 


Period.)         to  the  first  general  council.  15 

Primitive  Christian  Worship. 
Frequent  assemblies  by  day  and  night.  Here  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  and  other  books  tending  to  religious 
edification,  were  read,  —  upon  which  the  bishop  or  pres- 
byter delivered  a  discourse,  with  practical  application. 
Then  all  stood  up,  and  prayed — for  themselves,  the  bre- 
thren, and  the  world  at  large.  Psalms  and  hymns  were 
sung.  The  Lord's  Supper  was  celebrated,  together  with 
the  feast  of  charity,  and  the  kiss  of  charity  or  peace  was 
exchanged ;  and  mutual  engagements  to  a  life  of  holiness 
and  virtue  were  made.  —  The  death  and  resurrection  of 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  were  commemorated  in  annual 
festivals  at  the  season  of  the  passover.  The  first  day  of 
the  week  (the  Lord's  day)  was  regarded  as  holy,  in  re- 
membrance of  Christ's  resurrection :  and  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  also  was  observed  by  many. 

About  a.d.  100,  f  Clement  of  Rome. 


Jealous  inquiry  after  the  descendants  of  David  in 
Judaea. 

or  107.     Symeon,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  put  to  death. 

Several  parties  at  Jerusalem  after  the  death  of  Symeon, 
probably  more  or  less  infected  with  Gnostic  errors. 
Thebuthis.     Elcesaites. 

Nicolaitans,  Gnostics  who  did  not  refuse  to  join  in  the 
heathen  sacrifices,  when  required  to  do  so. 

Trajan  sets  out  for  Parthia;  stops  at  Antioch. 

(al.  116.)  Ignatius  put  to  death.  Persecution  under 
Trajan  (Third). 

Seven  Epistles  of  Ignatius,  written  from  Smyrna  to  the 
Ephesians,  Trallians,  Magnesians,  Romans,  and  from 
Troas  to  the  Smyrnaeans,  Philadelphians,  and  Polycarp. 

Other  Epistles  were  afterwards  ascribed  to  Ignatius, 
which  are  now  deservedly  rejected  as  spurious.  The 
seven  genuine  epistles  appear  to  have  suffered  consider- 
able interpolations. 


16  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH        (First 

110  Pliny  goes  to  Bithynia  as  Propraetor. 

111  Trajan  returns  to  Rome. 
Persecution  in  Bithynia  under  Pliny. 

Trajan    the   first    Emperor   who    enacted  penal   laws 
against  the  Christians. 


Epistles   of  Pliny  to  Trajan  and  Trajan  to  Pliny  con- 
cerning the  Christians. 


It  soon  became  usual  with  the  Christians  to  fast  on 
certain  days,  namely,  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  in 
every  week  ;  and  annually,  before  the  Paschal  festival. 
At  first,  this  latter  fast  continued  for  the  space  of  forty 
hours;  but  it  was  afterwards  extended  to  forty  days.  — 
The, duration  of  fasts,  and  the  mode  of  observing  them, 
varied  in  different  places. 


114  Insurrection  of  the  Jews  in  Egypt  and  Cyrene. 

Probably  a  persecution  arose  in  Palestine,  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  turbulence  of  the  Jews. 

liy  Adrian,  Emperor. 

Troubles  at  Rome ;  —  perhaps  no  general  persecution. 

But  this  reign  is  generally  considered  as  the  period  of 

the 

Fourth  Persecution. 

Persecutions  in  the  Roman  empire  proceeded  partly 
from  the  magistrates,  partly  from  the  people,  partly  from 
individuals. — The  magistrates  were  sometimes  induced  to 
persecute,  because  an  adherence  to  a  c  religio  illicita,'  an 
unlicensed  or  unlawful  religion,  with  a  refusal  to  join  in  the 
ceremonies  of  the  state-religion,  and  to  pay  the  customary 
tribute  of  respect  to  the  person  of  the  emperor,  seemed 
to  indicate  disaffection  to  the  government  and  constitu- 
tion; and  the  despotic  government  was  jealous  and  suspi- 
cious.— The  people  were  excited  against  the  Christians  by 
means  of  false  charges  of  impiety  and  inhuman  conduct; 
and  their  prejudices  led  them  to  ascribe  public  calamities 
to  the  presence  of  Christians  in  the  country. — Individuals 


Period,)  to  the  first  general  council.  17 

were  often  personally  interested  in  maintaining  the  ex- 
isting idolatry  and  worship. 


Aquila  translates  the  Jewish  Scriptures  into  Greek. 
Papias  fl. 


Adrian  at  Alexandria. 
Martyrdom  of  Symphorosa  and  her  sons. 
Adrian  at  Athens. 
Persecution  at  Athens ;   where  Christianity,  which  had 
languished,  revives  under  Quadratus. 


The  Apologies  of  Quadratus  and  Aristides  (now  lost) 
were  presented  to  Adrian,  about  this  time,  or  somewhat 
later. 

A  forgery,  entitled  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  was  com- 
posed probably  at  the  beginning  of  this  century. 

(Hermes  Trismegistus  is  a  forgery  of  this  date,  or  a 
little  later.) 

Basilides,  of  Syria,  founds  a  Judaico-Gnostic  School  at 
Alexandria ;  which  was  continued  by  his  son  Isidorus. 
His  system  combined  the  doctrines  of  Emanation  and 
Dualism. 

Saturninus,  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  founds  there  an  Anti- 
Jewish  Gnostic  sect. 

Adrian  returns  to  Rome.  He  afterwards  visited  various 
parts  of  the  empire. 

Adrian's  letter  to  Minucius  Fundanus,  proconsul  of 
Asia  Minor,  favourable  to  the  Christians,  inasmuch  as  it 
ordered  the  punishment  of  any  who  should  accuse  them 
falsely;  but  it  provided  also  that  "obstinacy"  on  their 
part,  i.  e.  a  perseverance  in  their  religion  after  conviction, 
should  be  punished. 

(Report  of  iElius  Lampridius  (4th  century),  that 
Adrian  would  have  erected  a  temple  to  Christ  at  Rome, 
had  he  not  been  dissuaded  by  the  priests,  probably  with- 
out foundation.  He  had  a  great  contempt  for  all  "  sacra 
peregrina") 


18  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       {First 

The  Christians  now  form  a  body  entirely  distinct  from 
the  Jews. 

Fraternal  communion  of  Christian  churches,  in  different 
countries,  with  each  other. 

Christians  numerous  at  Alexandria. 


1^9  Adrian  mentions  the  Christians  in  a  letter  to  Servianus 

the  consul ;  he  displays  great  ignorance  of  their  tenets  and 
religion. 


Age   of    Scriptural  Doctrine,  simple  Worship, 
pure  Morals,  and  Martyrdom. 


Christian  Doctrine. 
The  main  articles  of  Christian  faith,  as  delivered  by 
Christ  and  his  Apostles,  were  maintained  by  the  Church 
from  the  beginning,  and  have  been  confessed  in  all  ages, 
notwithstanding  the  various  controversies  and  minor  dif- 
ferences which  have  arisen.  This  original  and  prevalent 
system  of  belief  may  be  described  in  the  words  of  Irenaeus, 
a  writer  of  this  (second)  century:  —  "  The  Church,  though 
it  be  dispersed  over  all  the  world,  from  one  end  of  the 
earth  to  the  other,  has  received  from  the  Apostles  and 
their  disciples  the  belief  in  one  God,  the  Father  Almighty, 
Maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  sea,  and  all  things  in 
them ;  and  in  one  Christ  Jesus,  the  Son  of  God,  who  was 
incarnate  for  our  salvation ;  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  who 
preached  by  the  prophets  the  dispensations  of  God,  and 
the  advent,  nativity  of  a  Virgin,  passion,  resurrection  from 
the  dead,  and  bodily  ascension  into  heaven  of  the  flesh  of 
his  beloved  Son  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord,  and  his  coming 
again  from  heaven,  in  the  glory  of  the  Father,  to  restore 
all  things,  and  raise  the  flesh  of  all  mankind ;  that,  ac- 
cording to  the  will  of  the  invisible  Father,  every  knee 
should  bow,  of  things  in  heaven,  and  things  in  the  earth, 
and  things  under  the  earth,  to  Jesus  Christ,  our  Lord,  and 
God,  and  Saviour,  and  King;  and  that  every  tongue 
should  confess  to  him ;  and  that  he  may  exercise  just 
judgment  upon  all,  and  may  send  spiritual  wickednesses, 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  19 

and  the  transgressing  and  apostate  angels,  with  all  un- 
godly, unrighteous,  lawless,  and  blaspheming  men,  into 
everlasting  fire ;  but,  having  granted  life  to  all  righteous 
and  holy  men,  that  keep  his  commandments,  and  per- 
severe in  his  love,  some  from  the  beginning,  others  after 
repentance,  on  them  he  may  bestow  the  gift  of  immor- 
tality, and  invest  them  with  eternal  glory." 

All  churches  receiving  Holy  Scripture  as  the  sole 
rule  of  faith,  or  even  (erroneously)  as  only  part  of  the 
rule,  have  agreed  in  confessing  these  primary  doctrines  of 
Christian  truth.  The  corruptions  of  doctrine  which  have 
taken  place  from  time  to  time  within  those  churches,  have 
consisted  in  unwarranted  additions  to  these  truths,  or  in 
undue  refinement  upon  some  or  all  of  them,  tending  more 
or  less  to  error.  Variations  and  defects  have  arisen  as  a 
consequence  of  such  corruptions.  But  we  may  trace 
substantial  agreement  in  essential  points  of  doctrine,  even 
under  all  additions,  and  amidst  all  diversities.  The  greatest 
amount  of  error  in  faith  has  been  occasioned  by  the  un- 
warranted adoption  of  tradition  as  a  concurrent  rule 
of  faith.  The  absolute  suspension  of  faith,  or  disavowal 
of  primary  and  elemental  truths,  by  societies  bearing  the 
Christian  name,  was  reserved  for  modern  times.  In  some 
countries,  Scripture  did  in  fact,  for  a  season,  cease  to  be  re- 
garded as  even  part  of  the  rule  of  faith,  and  its  place  was 
usurped  by  the  dictates  of  false  philosophy  and  rationalism. 


Early  Corruptions  of  Christianity. 

In  the  earliest  times  the  Gospel  was  corrupted,  and  sects 
were  formed  among  Christians,  partly  in  consequence  of 
attempts  to  incorporate  preconceived  notions  and  an- 
cient speculations  into  the  Christian  system,  and  partly 
by  reason  of  the  common  infirmities  and  aberrations  of 
the  human  mind.  These  causes,  and  their  results,  have 
been  classified  under  four  heads  :  — 

1.  An  attempt  to  amalgamate  Christianity  with  a  dead 
and  formal  Judaism ;  whence  the  Judaizing  sects  (Ebio- 
nites,  Nazarenes). 

c  2 


20  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH        (First 

2.  An  attempt  to  engraft  the  Oriental  philosophy  upon 
the  Gospel,  and  to  construct  a  Theosophic  system  upon  the 
basis  of  Christian  doctrine;  hence  the  Oriental  Theosophic 
sects  (Gnostics,  Manichees). 

3.  The  incorporation  of  a  superstitious  system  of  will- 
worship  and  asceticism;  hence  the  Superstitious  and 
Ascetic  sects  and  institutions  (Montanists). 

4.  An  endeavour  to  bring  down  the  doctrines  of  reve- 
lation to  the  level  of  finite  human  understanding,  weak- 
ened as  it  is  by  sin  ;  hence  the  Rationalistic  sects  (Anti- 
trinitarians). 

130  About  this  time  The  Perpetual  Edict  was  issued,  which 

enacted  that  all  cities  and  towns  throughout  the  empire 
should  follow  the  laws  and  customs  of  Rome,  instead  of 
their  own  local  and  annual  regulations.  It  was  probably 
adopted  by  enemies  of  the  Gospel  as  a  means  of  harassing 
the  Christians. 


132  (al.  128.)  Revolt  of  the  Jews  under  Barcochebas. 

(The  Jewish  Christians  refused  to  join  Barcochebas ; 
but  they  suffered  greatly  during  the  war  from  persecution 
by  the  Jews.) 

Justin  Martyr  leaves  Palestine,  having  become  a  con- 
vert to  Christianity  about  this  time. 


135  End  of  the  Jewish  War. 

Jews  forbidden  to  approach  Jerusalem,  except  once  a 
year. 

(Jerusalem  is  now  called  iElia  Capitolina.  Perhaps  the 
name  had  been  given  a  few  years  before.  It  is  certain 
that  the  city  was  rebuilt,  and  the  name  changed,  during 
the  reign  of  Adrian.) 


Marcus,  first  Gentile  bishop  of  Jerusalem. 
N.B.    The  prohibition    of   settling   at   iElia  did  not 
extend  to  Christians.      Eusebius  says,  that  the  church  of 
that  city  was  now  composed  entirely  of  Gentiles. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  21 

Interpolation  of  the  Sibylline  books  may  be  referred  to 
this  date,  or  somewhat  later.  It  appears  from  the  writings 
of  Justin,  that  the  spurious  oracles  were  now  generally- 
regarded  as  genuine  and  inspired. 

Antoninus  Pius,  Emperor. 

Persecution  at  Rome.  Telesphorus,  Bishop  of  Rome, 
put  to  death.  Hyginus  now  becomes  bishop  of  Rome, 
according  to  Eusebius  and  Tertullian;  but  some  place 
him  as  early  as  1*22  or  118. 

The  sufferings  of  Christians  during  this  reign  were  not 
countenanced  by  the  emperor  himself,  who,  on  some 
occasions,  even  wrote  letters  in  their  favour.  But  Christ- 
ians were  exposed  to  the  effects  of  private  malice  and 
popular  violence. 

Gentile  converts,  during  this  period,  were  more  nu- 
merous and  more  faithful  than  those  from  among  the  Jews 
and  Samaritans   (Justin  Martyr). 


Correspondence  kept  up  between  different  churches. 
Letters  of  communion  and  recommendation. 


Celsus  writes  against  the  Christian  religion  about  this 
time. 

Ophites^  in  Egypt,  an  Anti-Jewish  Gnostic  sect,  without 
admixture  of  Christian  doctrine.  —  Continued  until  the 
sixth  century.  —  To  these  the  Sethites  and  Cainites  bore 
great  resemblance. 

Valentinus,  a  native  of  Egypt,  goes  from  Alexandria  to 
Rome,  where  he  founds  a  Judaico- Gnostic  school  or  sect. 
To  this  sect  belonged  Heracleon  of  Alexandria,  Ptolemy, 
Marcus  of  Palestine,  Bardesanes  of  Edessa. 

An  apocryphal  book,  entitled  "  The  Shepherd,"  is 
supposed  by  some  critics  to  have  been  composed  about 
this  time  by  Hermas,  brother  of  Pius,  Bishop  of  Rome. 

Before  150.  Carjjocrates,  at  Alexandria,  founds  a  sect 
of  Anti- Jewish  (Eclectic  Antinomian)  Gnostics.  This 
sect  was  small ;  but  it  continued  until  the  sixth  century. 

c  3 


22  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH         (First 


148 

150 


Justin  Martyr  presents  his  first  Apology  to  Antoninus. 
Gnosticism  at  its  height. 


Persecution  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 

Gradual  cessation  of  miracles  in  the  Church  during 
this  century. 

Flourishing  period  of  the  Church  of  Athens. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament 
were  now  received  as  the  rule  of  faith  by  all  churches. 
During  this  century,  great  pains  were  taken  in  adjusting 
the  lists  or  canons  of  sacred  writings ;  and  translations 
were  made,  especially  into  Syriac  and  Latin. 

A  creed  or  confession  of  faith,  from  the  very  earliest  ages, 
was  committed  to  memory  and  repeated  by  candidates  for 
baptism.     This  creed  was  substantially  the  same  in  all  the 
churches,  but  with  slight  variations, 
155  About  this  time,   some  Christians  of  Asia  Minor  left 

their  own  country  and  settled  in  Gaul,  where  Christianity 
had  already  been  planted.  Intercourse  was  afterwards 
kept  up  between  the  Churches  of  Vienne  and  Lyons,  and 
those  of  Asia. 

The  epistles  or  decretals,  purporting  to  have  been 
written  by  the  bishops  of  Rome  during  this  century,  are 
forgeries  of  a  later  date. 

Apocryphal  gospels,  and  other  works  of  that  kind,  many 
of  which  were  probably  forged  by  the  Gnostics,  were  cir- 
culated during  this  century. 

Controversies  and  divisions  relating  to  constitution  and 
discipline  prevailed  chiefly  in  the  West ;  those  which  had 
reference  to  doctrine  or  theory  existed  principally  in  the 
East.  

Papias,  Bishop  of  Hierapolis,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  who  taught  the  doctrine  of  a  Millenium  ;  ?'.  e.  that  after 
a  first  resurrection  of  the  just,  they  will  reign  with  Christ 
upon  earth  for  a  thousand  years,  before  the  final  judg- 
ment. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  23 

Justin  Martyr  believed  in  a  Millenium ;  but  he  tells 
us  that  he  differed  herein  from  the  belief  of  many  good 
Christians  of  his  day. 

N.B.  The  Gnostics  expected  a  Millenium,  and  so  did 
the  Montanists.  Before  the  end  of  the  third  century, 
the  Millenarians  were  generally  regarded  as  in  error. 

1^7  (all 68.)   Rise  of  the  Montanists,  or  Cataphrygians  ; 

so  called  from  Montamis,  native  of  Ardaban,  a  village 
of  Mysia,  near  the  borders  of  Phrygia. 

Montanus  pretended  to  be  the  Paraclete  promised  by 
Christ,  commissioned  to  carry  to  perfection  the  code  of 
Christian  morals,  and  to  restore  the  purity  of  the  Christian 
life  and  the  discipline  of  the  Church,  so  far  as  it  had 
decayed.  Montanus  was  soon  joined  by  other  fanatics, 
who,  like  himself,  pretended  to  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and 
attempted  to  confirm  his  mission.  The  Montanists  did 
not  oppose  or  falsify  any  of  the  fundamental  articles  of 
the  Christian  faith  (except  that  some  of  them  may  perhaps 
have  declined  into  Sabellian  error)  ;  but  they  carried  the 
principles  of  mortification  and  laws  of  discipline  to  a  great 
length  :  they  imposed  severe  fasts,  forbad  a  second  mar- 
riage, set  a  high  value  upon  celibacy  and  martyrdom, 
visited  all  grievous  crimes  with  perpetual  excommunica- 
tion, and  taught  a  sovereign  contempt  of  earthly  goods. 
They  held  the  near  approach  of  the  end  of  the  world, 
and  of  the  commencement  of  the  millenial  reign  of  Christ 
on  earth. 

Montanists  continued  in  the  Church  under  various 
names  (Cataphrygians,  &c),  until  the  sixth  century. 

Edict  of  Antoninus  Pius,  confirming  that  of  Adrian, — 
that  no  one  should  be  prosecuted  merely  as  a  Christian, 
without  being  charged  with  some  offence. 

158  Polycarp  visits  Rome.     Difference  of  opinion  between 

Polycarp  and  Anicetus  respecting  the  time  of  celebrating 
Easter  ;  the  former  advocating  the  practice  and  opinions 
of  the  Jewish  and  other  Asiatic  Christians,  the  latter  de- 
fending the  usage  of  the  Western  Churches. 

c  4 


24  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

N.B.  Asiatic  Christians  celebrated  the  Passover  on  the 
night  of  the  fourteenth  of  Nisan  ;  they  commemorated  the 
crucifixion  on  the  following  day  (ttuo-^ol  <rTa.vpuxnpov) ;  and 
on  the  third  day  after  the}  celebrated  the  resurrection 
{Ttcwyjx  avuo-Taa-ipov).  Western  Christians  did  not  cele- 
brate the  Passover  at  all ;  but,  on  the  Lord's  day  next 
after  the  full  moon  in  Nisan,  they  celebrated  the  resur- 
rection, holding  a  communion  in  the  morning ;  and  they 
set  apart  the  foregoing  Friday  in  commemoration  of  the 
crucifixion. 


Justin's  Dialogue  with  Trypho. 
Tatian's  Diatessaron. 


161        Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  (the  Philosopher), 

Emperor. 
Crescens,  a  Cynic  philosopher,  active  in  opposition  to 
Christianity. 

Marcus  Antoninus  was  a  systematic  and  diligent  perse- 
cutor of  the  Christians,  carrying  into  effect  the  law  with 
great  rigour,  and  authorising  the  search  after  suspected 
persons.  But  Christians  were  now  made  eligible  to  public 
offices,  under  certain  moderate  restrictions. 
1 63  Death  of  Papias,  Bishop  of  Hierapolis. 

Period  of  the  (so  called) 
Fifth  Persecution. 

Second  Apology  of  Justin  Martyr,  probably  between 
161  and  165. 

Epistles  of  Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Corinth. 

Marcella,  a  female  teacher  of  Gnosticism,  at  Rome. 


164  About  this  time  Provincial  Councils  were  first  held. 

This  took  place  in  Asia,  on  occasion  of  the  Montanist 
controversies. 


Evidence  of  liberal  contributions  for  the  relief  of  dis- 
tressed Christians  about  this  time. 


165  Justin  Martyr  put  to  death.     Death  of  Peregrinus. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  25 

Tatian,  a  disciple  of  Justin,  returns  to  the  East.  Having 
embraced  the  errors  of  Valentinus  and  Marcion,  he 
founds  the  sect  of  the  Encratites  ( Tatian ists,  Hydro- 
paras  tatse).  Some  regard  his  followers  as  an  An ti- Jewish 
Gnostic  sect* 

Bardesanes  of  Edessa,  fL  He  wrote  in  defence  of 
Christianity,  but  afterwards  was  misled  by  the  Oriental 
philosophy,  and  held  some  of  the  opinions  of  the  Valen- 
tinians.     He  is  regarded  as  a  forerunner  of  Manicheism. 

The  emperors  celebrate  their  triumph  for  the  Parthian 
conquests. 

(al.  147.  169.  175.)  Martyrdom  of  Polycarp,  Bishop 
of  Smyrna,  and  others. 

Letter  of  the  Church  of  Smyrna,  describing  the  mar- 
tyrdom of  Polycarp. 

Commemoration  of  Martyrs. 
At  this  period  it  was  usual  with  Christians  to  com- 
memorate Martyrs  by  meeting  at  their  graves  on  the 
anniversaries  of  their  martyrdom,  and  there  celebrating 
divine  worship,  with  the  Lord's  supper,  as  on  the  Lord's 
day,  reading  the  acts  of  the  Martyr,  and  making 
collections  for  the  poor.  But  no  invocation  of  Martyrs, 
or  worship  of  relics,  was  yet  introduced.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  any  religious  veneration  was  paid  to  relics 
during  the  second  century. 

Controversies  concerning  the  obligation  of  the  Mosaic 
law  continue. 

A  pestilence  rages  during  several  years. 

The  emperors  leave  Rome  to  make  war  against  the 
Marcomanni.  Death  of  Verus.  M.  Aurelius  returns  to 
Rome. 

M.  Aurelius  sets  out  to  prosecute  the  war  in  Germany. 

Melito,  Bishop  of  Sardis ;  his  Apology  and  Canon  of 
the  Old  Testament. 


26 


FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

Apologies    of    Miltiades    and    Claudius    Apollinaris. 
Treatise  of  Hermias  against  the  heathen  philosophers. 
Apologetic  Age. 


Severus,  a  disciple  of  Tatian,  at  the  head  of  a  sect.  — 
Florinus,  Blastus,  followers,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  Valen- 
tinus. 

174  Victory  over   the   Quadi.      Story  of  the  Thundering 
Legion. 

175  Insurrection  of  Avidius  Cassius  in   Syria.     Tertullian 
says  that  no  Christian  joined  his  party. 

Athenagoras,  said  to  have  been  head  of  the  Catechetical 
School  at  Alexandria. 

Bardesanes  writes  against  Marcion.  His  son,  Harmo- 
nius,  a  writer  of  Syrian  hymns. 

Christian   writers   and   Alexandrian    Jews  assert  that 
Plato  borrowed  his  philosophy  from  Moses. 
Hegesippus  writes  his  history. 

176  "j"  Tatian.     Dionysius  of  Corinth. 
Apology  of  Athenagoras. 

Evidence  of  the  existence  of  churches,  each  with  regular 
establishment  of  bishop  and  presbyter,  at  Vienne  and 
Lyons.  Irenceus,  Bishop  of  Lyons.  Persecution  at  Vienne 
and  Lyons;    Pothinus  died  in  prison. 

Evidence  of  the  practice  of  Infant  Baptism  at  this  period. 

M.  Aurelius  at  Rome. 
178  The  emperor  and  his  son  Commodus  set  out  for  a  second 

war  with  the  Marcomanni. 

Lucius,  a  British  prince,  is  said  to  have  sent  to  Eleu- 
therus,  Bishop  of  Rome  at  this  time,  for  instruction  in  the 
Gospel.    Story  quite  unfounded. 

First  traces  of  Christian  Ascetics. 
Celibacy  was  now  regarded  as  a  heresy. 

(During  the  reign  of  Aurelius,  Lucian,  Apuleius,  Galen, 
Pausanias,  Polysenus,  Gellius,  Artemidorus,  Sextus  Em- 
piricus,  fl.). 

Theophilus  writes  his  work  to  Autolycus. 
Theodotion  translates  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  27 

(Rabbi  Judah,  of  Tiberias,  compiles  the  Mishna,  or  first 
part  of  the  Talmud.  Later  dates  are  assigned  by  some 
writers.) 

Commodus,  Emperor. 


Pantsenus,  head  of  the  Catechetical  School  at  Alex- 
andria. 

Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  Unity.  The  Christian  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  in  Unity  was  taught  by  the  earliest 
writers  from  the  New  Testament,  although  the  Platonic 
word  Tpiu$  was  first  used  by  Theophilus  of  Antioch 
(Justin  Martyr,  Athenagoras,  Tatian).  Irenseus  speaks 
obscurely  concerning  the  connection,  or  mutual  relation, 
of  the  three  persons  of  the  divine  nature  ;  but  he  expressly 
declares  that  a  belief  in  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit 
was  universally  adopted  by  the  Church  from  the  beginning. 

The  Unity  of  God  is  maintained  apologetically  against 
Polytheists,  and  against  such  Monotheists  as  contended 
that  the  doctrine  of  three  persons  in  one  essence  involves 
the  false  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of  Gods  ;  and  polemically 
against  the  dualism  of  the  Gnostics  and  Manichees. 

Under  Commodus,  the  persecutions  of  Christians  were 
only  partial.  The  emperor  was  careless  of  the  honour  of 
the  national  religion  ;  and  his  subjects,  being  compelled 
to  provide  for  their  own  safety,  had  few  opportunities  of 
harassing  their  neighbours. 


Christians  are  now  divided  into  two  classes,  the  Faith- 
ful and  Catechumens  ;  probably  in  imitation  of  the  heathen 
system  of  initiation,  &c,  or  rather  as  a  necessary  pre- 
caution for  the  purity  of  morals,  suggested  by  the  circum- 
stances of  the  Church. 


Marcia,  the  mistress  of  Commodus,  favours  the  Christ- 
ians. 

The  Church  enjoys  peace;  but  individual  Christians 
occasionally  suffer  cruel  treatment. 

Apollonius  put  to  death,  and  with  him  his  slave,  who 
had  acted  as  informer. 


28 


188 


192i 
193  \ 


193 


FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

About  this  time  Irenagus  writes  his  work  Against  Here- 
sies. 

Clement,   head  of  the   Catechetical    School   at  Alex- 
andria. 

The  Gospel  preached  in  Ethiopia  by  Pantaenus. 


Gradual  change   in   the   Constitution   of  the    Church ;    h 
creasing  ascendancy  of  the  Hierarchical  Aristocracy. 

Increased  number  of  Church  Officers. 


Nicolaitans,  and    other    Anti-Jewish    and  Antinomian 
sects. 

Montanism 

had  now  greatly  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  Church  in 
various  parts  of  the  world. 


Christian  writers  now  begin   to  attack   the   errors  of 
Paganism,  as  well  as  to  defend  the  Gospel. 


Helvius    Pertinax;    then   Didius  Julianus  ;    finally, 
Septimius  Severus,  Emperors. 

Christians  did  not  suffer  much  persecution  during  the 
first  six  years  of  Severus. 


Symmachus  translates  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek. 
The   earliest  commentators  upon   Scripture  appear  to 
have  been  Pantaenus  and  Clement  of  Alexandria. 


Theodotians.  Artemonites. 
Theodotus,  at  Rome,  maintains  the  doctrine  of  the 
simple  humanity  of  Christ,  but  admits  his  miraculous 
conception.  His  opinions  adopted  by  Artemon  or  Arte- 
mas.  A  small  remnant  of  this  sect  existed  in  the  third 
century.  No  person  before  Theodotus  had  taught  that 
Christ  was  a  mere  man. 

Patripassians*     Monarchians. 
Praxeas,  of  Asia  Minor,  denies  the  distinction  of  per- 
sons in   the  Godhead,  teaching  that  the  Son  and  Holy 
Ghost  are  only  modes  or  operations  of  the  Divine  Being. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  29 

Byzantium  taken. 

Victor  excommunicates  Theodotus  at  Rome. 

Councils  in  Asia  Minor  and  Palestine  concerning  the 
Paschal  controversy.  (The  earliest  councils  were  popu- 
lar deliberative  assemblies,  consisting  of  delegates  elected 
and  sent  as  representatives  of  independent,  but  federated, 
churches.) 

Early  aggression  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Victor  excommunicates  the  Churches  of  Asia  Minor. 
Reconciliation   effected   by    Irenasus,    who,    with    other 
bishops,  refused  to  follow  the  example  of  Rome.     Some 
of  these  bishops  sharply  rebuked  Victor. 


The  letter  of  Irenseus  to  Victor  shows  that  at  this  time 
the  fast  before  Easter  lasted  in  some  countries  one  day ; 
in  others  forty  hours,  and  in  others  two  days  or  more. 
The  same  difference  is  mentioned  by  Socrates  in  the 
fifth  century. 

Julius  Cassian,  Encratite. 


The  Church  of  Carthage  rises  into  eminence.     Bishops 
succeed  to  their  office  by  seniority. 


Tertullian  rises  into  notice  at  Carthage. 
Maximus,  on  Evil ;  Heraclitus,  on  the  Apostles ;  Can- 
didus  and  Apion,  on  the  Six  Days  of  Creation  ;  Sextus,  on 
the  Resurrection  ;  Judas,  on  the  Seventy  Weeks  of  Daniel, 
who  describes  Severus  as  Antichrist. 

(al.  205.)   Tertullian's  Apology. 
During    this    century    many    works   were   written    by 
Gnostics,  but  they  have  all  perished. 


Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 
Europe. 
Christians  had  now  been  planted  in  Italy,  Spain,  Gaul, 
and   Britain;  there  were  also  churches  in  Thrace  and 


TURY. 


30  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

EndofI  parts  of  Scythia,  and  in  parts  of  Germany,  Dacia,  and 

THE  o 

Second    Sarmatia. 
Cen-  Africa. 

Churches  had  been  founded  at  Alexandria  and  Car- 
thage; there  were  settlements  of  Christians  along  the 
whole  northern  coast ;  Christianity  had  been  preached  in 
Ethiopia. 

Asia. 
The  Gospel  had  been  preached  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and 
Bactria.     Churches  were  nourishing  in  Asia  Minor,  Pa- 
lestine, and  Mesopotamia. 


The  writings  of  the  Fathers  of  this  century  contain, 
for  the  most  part,  true  scriptural  doctrine  concerning,  — 
the  rule  of  faith ;  the  Holy  Trinity  ;  the  universality  of 
redemption;  the  sacrifice  of  Christ ;  justification;  faith; 
the  sacraments. 

But  various  important  errors  are  found  in  the  works  of 
Justin  Martyr,  Irenseus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Ter- 
tullian.  Great  injury  was  done  to  Christian  doctrine  by 
treating  it  as  a  matter  of  philosophy  and  speculation,  and 
especially  by  mixing  up  with  it  some  tenets  of  the  new 
Platonists. 

Christianity  had  now  been  embraced  by  some  profes- 
sors of  science  and  philosophy.  The  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel  begin  to  be  corrupted  by  means  of  idle  specula- 
tions, and  the  undue  application  of  human  learning. 

The  Alexandrians  undertook  to  separate  the  true  from 
the  false  in  the  Gnostic  system ;  but  they  did  not  escape 
the  danger  of  adopting  some  of  the  false  as  true. 

The  system  of  an  allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture 
begins  to  prevail  at  Alexandria. 

Proofs  of  substantial  agreement  between  the  principal 
churches  (e.  g.  those  of  Alexandria,  Carthage,  Lyons), 
respecting  Christian  doctrine  and  the  canon  of  Scripture, 
but  not  without  circumstantial  variations  in  some  customs 
and  modes  of  expression.  We  find  traces  of  creeds  or  con- 
fessions of  faith  in  the  works  of  Irenaeus  and  Tertullian. 


Cen- 
tury. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  31 

End  of  Divine  Worship 

THE 

Sfv^ND  was  now  conducted  in  nearly  the  same  way  as  hitherto. 
It  consisted  of — 

The  reading  of  Scripture  and  some  uninspired  reli- 
gious writings. 

Preaching  (chiefly  expository  and  popular). 

Prayer  (standing  on  festivals ;  kneeling  on  fast-days ; 
turning  the  face  towards  the  East;  response,  Amen). 

Psalmody  (hymns  sometimes  composed  for  the  use  of 
congregations). 

Forms  of  public  prayer  were  probably  not  unknown 
during  this  age,  at  least  in  some  places. 

No  tithes  or  first-fruits  paid  for  the  maintenance  of 
ministers  of  religion  during  this  century.  Voluntary 
offerings  made  for  various  purposes. 


Christian  presbyters  begin  to  be  generally  regarded  as 
priests  in  the  Jewish  sense  of  the  term. 

Lay  presbyters  have  still  some  influence  in  the  African 
churches. 


Institutions,  Ceremonies,  8fc. 

The  Lord's  Day  universally  observed.  The  Jewish 
Sabbath  partially.  Annual  festivals  of  Easter  and  Whit- 
suntide. Annual  fast,  on  the  day  of  the  crucifixion. 
Anniversaries  of  Martyrs. 

Christian  teachers  sometimes  wore  the  mantle,  or  pe- 
culiar dress,  of  philosophers. 


At  this  period,  the  professors  of  Christianity  were  nu- 
merous, and  many  of  them  were  wealthy.  The  tone  of 
morality  in  the  Church  was  lowered. 


Severus  visits  Alexandria. 
General  persecution  (commonly  called  The  Sixth)  under 
Severus,  who  issued  an  edict  about  this  time,  prohibiting 
his  subjects    from    embracing   the   Jewish   or   Christian 


religion. 


32  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

%0Q  Leonides,  father  of  Origen,  put  to  death. 

Clement  quits  Alexandria. 
"f  Irenaeus.      Symmachus. 

203  Persecution  violent  at  Alexandria  and  Carthage. 


Tertullian  joins  the  Montanists. 

Hermogenes,  probably  at  Carthage,  propagates  Dualistic 
doctrines,  but  opposes  the  Emanation  system  of  the 
Gnostics. 

Praxeas,  excluded  from  communion  by  Zephyrinus, 
retracts  his  errors,  and  is  restored.  He  afterwards  re- 
lapsed. 

The  Alogi,  an  obscure  sect  of  Antitrinitarians. 

Natalius,  a  Theodotian  bishop,  retracts  his  errors,  and 
is  restored  to  communion. 


Severus  returns  to  Rome. 
204  Secular  games  celebrated  at  Rome. 

Questions  relating  to  the  Restoration  of  Lapsed  Peni- 
tents were  agitated  early  in  this  century,  which  led  to  a 
long  and  painful  controversy. 


The  assembling  of  Provincial  Councils,  in  which  the 
bishop  of  the  chief  city  of  the  province  presided,  led  to 
the  development  of  a  rising  hierarchical  system  —  to 
the  assumption  of  increased  power  on  part  of  ministers  in 
general,  — and  to  the  establishment  of  separate  interests 
in  their  favour.  Hitherto  we  have  read  chiefly  of  the 
acts  and  sufferings  of  the  church;  henceforward  history 
is  especially  employed  in  describing  the  acts,  errors,  and 
disputes  of  the  clergy. 

1 .  A  distinction  was  now  established  between  the  clergy 
and  the  laity. 

2.  The  clergy  consisted  of  bishops,  presbyters,  and 
deacons.  The  bishops  were  less  restrained  by  their  pres- 
byteries than  formerly. 

3.  The  larger  and  apostolical  churches  began  to  claim 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  33 

precedence  and  honour,  but  without  infringing  upon  the 
liberties  of  others. 

4.  The  doctrine  of  "the   Catholic  Church,"  as   one 
body,  begins  to  prevail. 


#  Some  suppose  that  Christianity  was  about  this  time 
introduced  into  Britain  from  Gaul ;  but  it  appears  that 
it  had  already  been  widely  disseminated  there.  (Tertull. 
Adv.  Jud.  c.  vii.) 

The  word  Sacramentum  was  now  applied  to  baptism, 
the  Lord's  supper,  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  various  reli- 
gious ceremonies. 

(Tertullian's  Theological  Terminology;  afterwards 
adopted  by  Cyprian,  and  made  current  in  the  Western 
Churches.) 


Monthly  charitable   contributions  were  usual  in  the 
churches  at  this  period. 


Origen  teaches  at  Alexandria ;  soon  after  made  head 
of  the  Catechetical  School. 

Ammonius  Saccas,  at  Alexandria,  founder  of  the  Ec* 
lectic  Philosophy,  or  school  of  Later  Platonists. 
His  first  attempt  was  to  bring  the  Platonic  and  Aristote- 
lian systems  into  agreement.  He  then  proceeded  to 
blend  this  new  compound  with  Christianity.  He  framed 
his  system  in  the  interval  between  200  and  235  He  is 
said  to  have  abandoned  the  Christian  faith  at  last. 


Tertullian  writes  against  Marcion. 
Minucius  Felix  writes  his  Octavius. 


Severus  and  his  sons  go  into  Britain. 
Severus    dies   at   York.     Caracalla   and    Geta,    joint 
emperors  for  a  time.     Geta  killed  by  his  brother. 

Caracalla,  Emperor. 
Christians   generally    enjoyed    toleration    during    this 


34  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH         (First 

reign;  but  they  were  exposed  to  persecution  in   some 
places. 

213  Origen  goes  to  Rome;  and  returns  to  Alexandria. 

21 4  Origen  called  into  Arabia. 


Alexander,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  for  some  time  in  con- 
junction with  Narcissus,  restored.  First  instance  on 
record  of  two  persons  together  holding  the  same  see, 
which  was  afterwards  forbidden  by  councils. 

Alexander  had  been  Bishop  of  Flavias  in  Cappadocia ; 
first  instance  of  translation. 
215  Council   at   Carthage,   under  Agrippinus,   concerning 

baptism  administered  by  heretics. 

Origen  goes  to  Caesarea  in  Palestine. 

Demetrius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  expostulates  with 
Theoctistus,  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Palestine,  for  allowing 
Origen,  who  was  a  layman,  to  read  the  Scriptures  and 
deliver  discourses  in  the  church.  Theoctistus,  in  reply, 
quoted  precedents  in  favour  of  such  a  practice ;  and  he 
was  supported  by  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem.  De- 
metrius, however,  commanded  Origen  to  return  to 
Alexandria. 

Massacre  at  Alexandria  by  Caracalla. 


A  question  arises  about  this  time  respecting  the  valid- 
ity of  baptism  administered  by  reputed  heretics. 

Exaggerated  statements  respecting  the  efficacy  of  the 
sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  gain  cur- 
rency, attended  with  superstitious  veneration  for  those 
rites,  and  abuses. 

Baptism,  in  the  second  Century,  and  beginning  of  the  third. 

1.  Was  now  more  generally  administered  to  infants. 

2.  Some  limitations  had  been  introduced  respecting 
the  ministering  of  baptism,  and  the  times  of  administra- 
tion (Easter  and  Whitsuntide). 

3.  Ceremonies  were  added  to  the  rite.  Renunciation 
of  the  devil  and  his  pomps. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  35 

4.  Solemn  confession  of  faith  repeated. 

5.  Use  of  the  sign  of  the  cross. 

6.  Sponsors. 

7.  Anointing  with  oil. 

8.  Use  of  milk  and  honey. 

The  Lord's  Supper,  during  the  same  period. 

1.  Received  several  new  names  and  appellations. 

2.  Elements  consecrated  by  none  but  bishops, 

3.  And  distributed  by  deacons. 

4.  Sometimes  conveyed  to  persons  absent  from  public 
worship. 

5.  Occasionally,  perhaps,  administered  to  infants. 

6.  Still  administered  in  both  kinds. 

7.  Bread  leavened;  wine  mixed  with  water. 

Prayers  for  the  Dead. 
Feasts  of  charity  still  celebrated ;  but  not  always   in 
connexion  with  the  Lord's  supper. 


The  following  are  the  principal  doctrines  which  were 
brought  prominently  forward  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
second  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  third,  occa- 
sioned by  the  assertions  and  pretensions  of  various  sects 
and  parties :  — 

1.  Against  the  Gnostics  ;  the  unity  of  God ;  the  good- 
ness of  the  Creator ;  the  identity  of  the  origin  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments ;  the  reality  of  the  life  and  suffer- 
ings of  Jesus  Christ  upon  earth. 

2.  Against  the  Montanists  and  Novatians ;  Christian 
liberty  ;  necessity  of  infant  baptism ;  needlessness  of  re- 
baptizing  the  lapsed. 

3.  Against  the  Semi-Gnostics,  Alogi,  and  Sabellians ; 
the  proper  deity  and  personality  of  the  Logos  (without 
denning  any  thing  concerning  the  nature  of  the  Holy 
Spirit). 

4.  Against  the  Marcionites ;  the  canonicity  of  certain 

parts  of  the  New  Testament  (but  without  finally  fixing 

the  canon). 

d  2 


3®  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH         (First 

(Holy  Scripture  was  recognised  as  the  source  of  reli- 
gious doctrine ;  but  with  a  certain  respect  to  Tradition, 
as  a  concurrent  witness  to  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles.) 

Various  controversies  were  agitated  during  this  cen- 
tury.    Some  old  disputes  continue,  and  others  take  rise. 

The  first  system  of  Christian  doctrine  compiled  by 
Origen  (De  Principiis). 


Disputes  concerning  Montanism  now  run  high.  The 
Montanists  divide  into  two  parties ;  one,  under  iEschines, 
maintaining  opinions  resembling  those  of  Praxeas  and 
Sabellius  ;  the  other,  under  Proculus,  retaining  more  scrip- 
tural views  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 


217  Macrinus,  Emperor. 


gl8  (C1Y-)  t   Clement  of  Alexandria.      Tertullian. 

Heliogabalus,  Emperor. 
Heliogabalus  attempted  to  establish  the  worship  of  the 
Sun  throughout  the  empire ;  but  he  offered  no  molestation 
to  the  Christians  in  particular. 


During  the  early  part  of  this  century,  Philostratus 
wrote  the  life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana,  whose  impostures 
were  placed  in  competition  with  the  divine  miracles  of 
our  Saviour. 


220  Origen,  head  of  the  Catechetical  School  at  Alexandria. 

(This  is  the  latest  date  assigned  for  the  compilation  of 
the  Mishna  by  Rabbi  Judah.) 

t  Minucius  Felix, 
Hippolytus,  fl. 

°MCZ  Alexander  Severus,  Emperor. 

Alexander  tolerates,  or  even  favours,  the  Christians ; 
but  they  appear  to  have  been  exposed  to  partial  sufferings. 
The  celebrated  Ulpian,  in  particular,  who  was  the  em- 
peror's secretary,  and  commander  of  the  praetorian  guards, 
was  their  enemy. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  37 

Christianity  is  not  yet  a  "  religio  licita,"  or  religion 
tolerated  and  recognised  by  the  State. 


With  this  year  the  Canon  Paschalis  of  Hippolytus 
begins. 

Fasting  was  now  in  great  repute,  but  still  with  due 
allowance  for  Christian  liberty.  The  observance  becomes 
more  and  more  systematised.  Various  kinds  of  fasts,  with 
corresponding  names. 

The  kiss  of  charity  retained.  The  custom  of  signing 
with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  still  without  superstition. 

First  traces  of  churches,  or  distinct  buildings  appro- 
priated to  the  purpose  of  Christian  worship.  Several 
were  erected  about  this  time. 

Increased  strictness  of  discipline. 


Martyrdom  of  Martina  at  Rome. 


Ammonius  Saccas  pretends  that  Christians  borrowed 
and  corrupted  the  doctrines  of  Plato ;  in  fact,  that  the 
Gospel  is  a  corruption  of  Platonism. 

"Christians  fell  into  the  snare  of  proving  an  agree- 
ment between  Platonism  and  the  Gospel.  Still  it  must 
be  remembered,  that  the  Platonists,  and  not  the  Christians, 
perverted  the  doctrines  of  their  founders.  Plato  was 
made  to  deliver  opinions  which  he  never  held;  and 
Christian  writers  explained  the  mysteries  of  their  religion 
in  the  language  of  Plato.  It  is  not  improbable  that  these 
speculations  led  the  way  to  the  Sabellian  and  Arian  here- 
sies."    (Burton,  Lectures  on  Eccles.  Hist.  lect.  xxx.) 

Origen  ordained  presbyter  in  Palestine  by  Theoctistus, 
Bishop  of  Caesarea,  and  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem. 
Origen  returns  to  Alexandria. 


Demetrius     holds     a    council    at  Alexandria   against 
Origen. 

d  3 


38  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH         (First 

Noetus,  of  Smyrna,  denies  the  distinction  of  persons  in 
the  Godhead. 

231  By  the  Council  of  Iconium,   baptism   administered  by 

heretics  (Montanists)  is  declared  invalid. 


Christian  Churches  (or  Congregations)  now  existed  in  every 
province  and  city  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

Origen  finally  leaves  Alexandria,  and  settles  at  Caesarea 
in  Palestine.     His  Commentaries. 

Heraclas  (who  had  formerly  assisted  Origen).  head  of 
the  Catechetical  School  at  Alexandria. 
232  Succeeded  by  Dionysius. 

Eclectic  Philosophy  gaining  ground. 
Plotinus  attends  the  lectures  of  Ammonius  Saccas. 
After  the  ejection  of  Origen  from  Alexandria,  Christian 
writers  became  less  fond  of  using  the  language  and  imagery 
of  Plato. 

Firmilian,   Bishop   of  Caesarea   in   Cappadocia,    visits 
Origen.    Also,  Athenodorus  and  Theodorus  from  Pontus. 

Opinions  of  Origen. 
The  errors  (subsequently)  ascribed  to  Origen  relate 
principally  to  the  assertion  of  inequality  between  the 
Father  and  the  Son  (in  which  respect  he  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  forerunner  of  Arius)  ;  his  ambiguous  or  in- 
adequate expressions  concerning  the  wrork  of  redemption 
(for  he  made  but  faint  and  indefinite  mention  of  the 
incarnation,  life,  and  sufferings  of  Christ,  his  sacrifice  and 
satisfaction,  and  the  forgiveness  of  sins) ;  the  mutual 
relation  of  human  power  and  divine  grace  (on  which  point 
he  made  way  for  the  doctrines  of  Pelagius)  ;  and  his 
resolute  denial  of  the  eternity  of  future  punishments. 
His  system  of  allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture 
formed  also  a  subject  of  complaint, 


Montanism  makes  progress  in  Asia  Minor. 


235  Maximinus,  Emperor. 

Partial  persecution  of  Christians,  aimed  especially  at 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  39 

the  heads  of  the  Church   (commonly  called  The  Seventh 
Persecution). 


235 

238 


239 


240 


Origen  retires  to  Cappadocia,  and  begins  his  Hexapla. 
Athenodorus  and  Theodorus  go  to  Alexandria. 


Gordian,  Emperor. 
Universal  toleration  and  peace  to  the  Church. 


Origen  visits  Greece  a  second  time;  continues  his 
Commentaries. 

Origen  returns  to  Caesarea;  rejoined  by  his  former 
pupil  Theodorus  (afterwards  called  Gregory  Thauma- 
turgus). 

Beryllus,  Bishop  of  Bostra,  confounds  in  his  doctrine 
the  persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  He  is  convinced  of  his 
error  by  Origen. 

(Manes  born.) 


The  bishops  or  presidents  of  the  several  churches,  as  such, 
noio  possess  great  and  increasing  influence  ;  hut  it  does  not 
appear  that  authority,  independent  of  their  presbyteries,  had 
been  formally  conceded  to  them. 

Funds  collected  for  charitable  purposes,  and  admi- 
nistered by  the  bishops,  were  now  considerable. 

It  was  usual  to  recite  publicly  the  names  of  alms- 
i  givers  or  benefactors,  at  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
supper. 

Foundation  of  the  doctrine  of  Purgatory  laid. 
Origen  taught,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  Plato, 
that  the  souls  of  all  good  men  will  hereafter  (namely,  at 
the  day  of  judgment)  pass  through  a  purgatorial  fire. 


Origen  writes  against  the  Elcesaites. 


Gregory   Thaumaturgus  builds  a  handsome  church  at 
Neocaesarea. 

d  4 


40  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH         (First 


Increasing  Uniformity  in  Worship.     Multiplication  of 
Rites  and  Ceremonies. 


Origen  completes  his  Hexapla  about  this  time,  and 
composes  his  work  against  Celsus. 

244  Philip  the  Arabian,  Emperor. 

Philip  openly  showed  favour  to  the  Christians.  He  is 
said  by  some  to  have  been  himself  a  convert;  but  this 
assertion  is  apparently  unfounded. 

Some  Christians  in  Arabia  maintained  that  the  soul 
perishes  with  the  body,  and  that  both  will  be  restored 
to  life  at  the  resurrection.  Origen  persuaded  them  to 
abandon  this  opinion. 


Some  change  in  the  manner  of  appointing  bishops  at 
Alexandria  appears  to  have  taken  place  about  this  time. 


247        Pierius,  head  of  the  Catechetical  School  at  Alexandria. 


248  Cyprian,  Bishop  of  Carthage ;   his  election  opposed  by 
Novatus. 

By  this  time,  Christianity  was  extensively  established 
in  Gaul. 

Christians  persecuted  at  Alexandria  by  the  people. 

Christianity  had  made  great  progress  during  the  long 
period  of  peace  since  the  death  of  Severus. 

249  Decius,  Emperor. 
Persecution  (commonly  called  The  Eighth)  begins. 

Decius  issues  an  edict,  by  which  Christians  are  peremp- 
torily required  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods.  Fabianus,  Bishop 
of  Rome,  put  to  death. 

During  the  Decian  persecution,  large  numbers  of 
Christians  apostatised  from  the  faith;  many  cheerfully 
submitted  to  sufferings;  and  not  a  few  displayed  an  un- 
due and  immoderate  passion  for  imprisonment  and  martyr- 
dom. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  41 

Diptyc/is,  or  Catalogues  of  Martyrs. 
Catechumenate.    Disciplina  Arcani. 


Cyprian  seeks  safety  in  flight  from  Carthage.  Diony- 
sius  escapes  from  Alexandria.  Origen  thrown  into  pri- 
son. Alexander,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  Babylas, 
Bishop  of  Antioch,  die  in  prison.  The  Christians  endure 
great  sufferings  at  Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Carthage ;  also 
in  Palestine  and  Asia  Minor. 

Church  of  Rome  without  a  bishop. 

Rise  of  Monachism. 
Paul  the  Hermit,  of  Thebes,  and  others  retire  to  the 
deserts  of  Egypt  from  the  Decian  persecution. 


t  Hippolytus. 

Gallus,  Emperor. 

Questions  concerning  the  Restoration  of  the  Lapsed 
( Sacrificati,  Thurificati,  Libellatici).  Novatus  and  his 
party  advocate  the  more  lax  system  at  Carthage,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Cyprian.  Novatian  and  his  followers  at  Rome 
uphold  the  more  severe  discipline,  in  opposition  to  Cor- 
nelius. 

Schism  of  Novatus  and  Felicissimus  at  Carthage. 
Cyprian  returns,  holds  a  council,  and  settles  the  question 
of  the  Lapsed. 

Election  of  Cornelius,  as  Bishop  of  Rome,  opposed  by 
Novatian.  Council  at  Rome.  Novatian  condemned,  after 
having  been  consecrated  as  a  rival  bishop. 

Synodal  letter  of  the  Council  of  Carthage  con- 
tains the  following  pretensions  :  — "  Placuit  nobis,  Sancto 
Spiritu  suggerente,  et  Domino  per  visiones  multas  et 
manifestas  admonente." 

The  doctrine  of  the  Unity  of  the  Church  supported 
and  advocated  by  Origen. 

Great  Pestilence  begins. 


42  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF   THE    CHURCH         (First 

Invasion  of  the  Goths.     War  with  Persia  begins. 

Persecution  renewed  by  Gallus  (Ninth  Persecution), 
Cornelius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  put  to  death. 

(Christians  numerous  at  Rome.  The  churches  of  that 
city  were  now  served  by  forty-six  Presbyters,  seven  Dea- 
cons, seven  Sub-deacons,  and  forty-two  Assistants,  fifty- 
two  Exorcists,  Readers,  and  Porters.) 

Q53  Valerian,  Emperor. 

Lucius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  put  to  death.  Persecution 
ceases  after  the  death  of  Gallus. 

Valerian's  household  was  full  of  Christians  at  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reign. 

Gallic  bishops  consult  the  bishops  of  Rome  and  Car- 
thage respecting  treatment  of  the  Lapsed. 

254  t  Origen. 


Marcianus,  Bishop  of  Aries,  deposed  for  Novatianism. 
Basilides  and  Martialis,  Spanish  bishops,  deposed.  Ste- 
phen advocates  their  restoration;    Cyprian  opposes  it. 

Cyprian  strongly  insists  upon  outward  unity  of  the 
Church ;  he  speaks  of  St.  Peter  as  the  representative  of 
this  unity ;  and  says,  that  the  Bishop  of  Rome  is  the  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Peter,  and  that  the  Church  of  Rome  is 
entitled  to  precedence,  from  the  importance  of  the  city ; 
but  he  refuses  to  acknowledge  the  superiority  of  the  Bishop 
of  Rome  over  other  bishops  in  point  of  jurisdiction  or 
authority,  such  as  Stephen  claims. 


255  Council  at  Carthage  decides  against  validity  of  baptism 

by  heretics,  and  asserts  the  necessity  of  rebaptizing  those 
who  had  received  it.  Stephen,  of  Rome,  takes  the  con- 
trary part. 

Firmilian,  Bishop  of  Cappadocia,  speaks  of  Stephen  as 
a  schismatic ;  as  having  withdrawn  from  the  unity  of  the 
Church,  in  allowing  the  validity  of  heretical  baptism  ;  and 
asserts  that  many  things  are  done  at  Rome  contrary  to 
apostolical  authority. 

(The  Church  of  Rome  stood  quite  alone  in  thiscontro- 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  43 

versy ;  but  Stephen  called  his  opponents  "  perverters  of 
the  truth,  and  traitors  to  ecclesiastical  unity,"  threatening 
to  exclude  them  from  communion.) 

Another  council  at  Carthage  again  decides  against  the 
validity  of  baptism  by  heretics,  and  that  lapsed  ministers 
should  be  re-admitted  only  as  laymen. 

Another,  in  the  autumn,  against  validity  of  heretics' 
baptism. 

Cyprian  strongly  asserts  the  right  of  every  bishop  to 
make  laws  for  his  own  church. 


Commemorations  of  Martyrs  and  Confessors, 
celebrated  with  increased  care,   and  attended  with  festi- 
vities. 

Penitentiary  Presbyters 
were  established  about  this  time,  but  the  institution  does 
not  appear  to  have  become  general.      The  customs  of  the 
Church  respecting  excommunication,  penance,  and  absolution, 
begin  to  be  reduced  to  a  system. 

Christians  were  eminent  for  their  attentions  to  the 
dying  and  the  dead  during  the  Great  Pestilence. 

The  council  of  Carthage  enjoins  infant  baptism.  At 
this  period  it  was  usual  at  Carthage  to  administer  the 
Lord's  Supper  to  infants. 


Macrianus  uses  his  influence  with  the  emperor  against 
the  Christians. 

Persecution  under  Valerian  begins.  Stephen,  Bishop 
of  Rome,  put  to  death.  Cyprian  banished  to  Curubis. 
Many  Christians  sent  to  the  mines. 

Dionysius  of  Alexandria  banished.  Sixtus  of  Rome, 
with  his  deacon  Laurentius,  and  Cyprian  put  to  death. 


Sabellians. 

Sabellius  propagates  his  doctrines  in  Egypt.  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria  opposes  them. 

"  The  Sabellians  denied  the  personality  of  the  Son  and 
the  Holy  Ghost.     They  believed  that   God  the  Father 


44  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH         (First 

was  himself  the  Redeemer  and  Sanetifier  of  mankind ; 
that  the  divinity  of  the  Father  resided  in  Jesus  Christ, 
who  had  no  separate  existence  before  his  appearance  upon 
earth  ;  and  that  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  are  mere 
modes  or  operations  of  the  one  only  God.  If  we  seek  for 
a  difference  between  the  theory  of  Sabellius  and  those 
of  his  predecessors,  we  are  perhaps  to  say,  that  Noetus 
supposed  the  whole  divinity  of  the  Father  to  be  inhe- 
rent in  Jesus  Christ,  whereas  Sabellius  supposed  it  to 
be  only  a  part,  which  was  put  forth  like  an  emanation, 
and  was  again  absorbed  in  the  Deity.  Noetus  acknow- 
ledged only  one  divine  Person  ;  Sabellius  divided  this  one 
divinity  into  three;  but  he  supposed  the  Son  and  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  have  no  distinct  personal  existence,  except 
when  they  were  put  forth  for  a  time  by  the  Father." 
(Burton.)  They  supposed  the  emanation  (Logos)  to 
have  been  to  Christ  in  place  of  a  human  soul. 

Sabellians  existed  at  Rome  and  Alexandria  until  the 
fourth  century. 


259  Valerian  made  prisoner  by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia. 

Gallienus,  Emperor. 
Thirty  Tyrants. 


Gallienus,  by  an  edict,  granted  to  the  Christians 
liberty  and  protection  in  the  exercise  of  their  religion. 
And  thus  Christianity  became,  for  the  first  time,  a  "religio 
licita"  or  mode  of  worship  recognised  and  permitted 
by  the  State. 


260  Paul  of  Samosata,  Bishop  of  Antioch. 

261  Macrianus  and  his  two  sons  put  to  death.     Christians 
free  from  persecution  until  the  end  of  the  reign. 

Theognostus,  head  of  the  Catechetical  School  at  Alex- 
andria. 


Dionysius,    Bishop    of  Alexandria,    called   upon  by 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  45 

Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  to  answer  a  charge  of  holding 
unsound  doctrine  concerning  the  nature  of  Christ.  In 
the  following  year  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria  published 
"  A  Refutation  and  Defence." 

Nepos,  an  Egyptian  bishop,  writes  in  favour  of  the 
doctrine  of  a  Millenium.  —  Opposed  by  Dionysius,  Bishop 
of  Alexandria. 

From  this  time  we  find  but  few  writers  who  maintain 
the  Millenarian  doctrine. 


Great  disturbances  at  Alexandria,  occasioned  by  the 
rival  claims  of  Gallienus  and  iEmilianus. 


Porphyry,  one  of  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the  Gospel, 
at  Rome.  (N.B.  Plotinus  and  Porphyry  asserted  that 
the  doctrines  of  Plato  and  of  the  Christians  respecting 
the  Trinity  were  identical ;  and  that  the  Gospel  was  a 
corruption  of  P.latonism.) 


The  foundations  of  the  Canon  Law  were  laid  by  the 
Councils  of  the  African  Church  in  the  course  of  this 
Century. 

The  present  period  may  be  characterised  as 

The  Age  of  Imposture, 

Rising  Hierarchical  Pretensions, 

and 

Incipient  Controversy. 


Odenatus  of  Palmyra  acknowledged  by  Gallienus  as 
Emperor  of  the  East. 

First  council  of  Antioch  against  Paul  of  Samosata. 


Paul  of  Samosata 
taught  that  Jesus  was  born  a  mere  man ;  but  that  after 
his  birth  he  was  invested  with  the  Logos,  or  Reason  of 
God,  which  Paul  supposed  to  have  had  no  personal  pre- 
existence  distinct  from  God  himself,  but  to  have  been  put 
forth  by   God  after  the  birth   of  Jesus.     He  therefore 


46  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH         (First 

denied  the  proper  divinity  of  Christ,  but  he  did  not  hold 
that  our  Saviour  was  merely  a  human  being. 


2oJ  The  Pestilence  ceases. 

Zenobia,  widow  of  Odenatus,  rules  over  several  Eastern 
provinces. 

268  Claudius,   Emperor. 

Some  say  that  Claudius  persecuted  the  Christians. 
Porphyry  goes  to  Sicily. 


269  The   Council  of  Antioch,  held   this  year,  in  a  letter 

addressed  to  Paul,  plainly  asserts  the  essential  divinity 
of  Christ;  his  eternal  pre-existence;  his  creation  of  the 
world ;  his  relation  to  God  as  a  son,  not  as  a  creature ; 
and  his  miraculous  incarnation.  The  doctrine  contained 
in  the  word  "consubstantial"  is  thus  clearly  taught, 
although  the  word  itself  does  not  appear.  Paul  of  Samo- 
sata  deposed.     Domnus,  Bishop  of  Antioch. 


t  Firmilian,  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia. 
270  j*  Gregory  Thaumaturgus. 

"f  Plotinus. 
Commodian,  a  Christian  poet,  fl. 


Aurelian,  Emperor. 

Aurelian  was  unfriendly  to  Christianity;  but,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  edict  of  Gallienus,  he  was  obliged  to 
recognise  the  Christian  Church  as  a  lawful  society. 


Celibacy  is  now  in  high  esteem,  as  an  antidote  against 
the  supposed  influence  of  demons. 

It  appears  that  at  this  period  many  females  made  pro- 
fession of  religious  chastity,  but  without  forming  them- 
selves into  communities,  and  probably  without  taking 
upon  themselves  the  obligation  of  a  vow. 

Devout  or  Holy  Virgins.      Virgins  of  the  Church, 

^72  Aurelian  defeats  Zenobia. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  47 

Deposition  of  Paui  of  Samosata  completed  by  Aurelian 
after  the  defeat  of  Zenobia. 

Constantine  born. 

Aurelian  was  about  to  commence  a  persecution  of  the 
Christians  when  he  died.  (The  Ninth  Persecution,  ac- 
cording to  Augustin,  De  Civ.  Dei,  xviii.  52.). 


Rise  of  Manicheism  in  Persia. 

Manichees  entirely  distorted  Christian  doctrine,  and 
accommodated  it  to  a  conformity  with  the  Persian 
Theosophy.  They  formed  themselves  into  a  distinct  cor- 
poration or  church. 

Paulianists.  The  followers  of  Paul  of  Samosata  con- 
tinued to  exist  as  a  distinct  sect  until  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  century. 


Tacitus,  Emperor. 
Manes  put  to  death. 
Manicheism  (doctrine  of  two  principles)  begins  to  pre- 
vail in  the  West. 


Projbus,  Emperor. 


(t  Rabbi   Johanan,   compiler  of  the   Gemara    in   the 
Talmud  of  Jerusalem.) 


Carus,  Emperor, 
with  his  sons  Carinus  and  Numerianus. 


During  forty  years  of  general  toleration  and  tran- 
quillity, Christianity  had  made  great  progress.  It  was 
openly  professed  by  large  numbers  of  persons  in  all 
ranks  of  life.  Christians  were  appointed  to  the  govern- 
ment of  provinces,  and  were  excused  from  assisting  at 
heathen  sacrifices. 

Achillas,  head  of  the  Catechetical  School  at  Alex- 
andria. 


48  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH         (First 

284  Diocletian,  Emperor. 

286  Maximian  Herculeus   associated   in   the  empire   with 

Diocletian  in  Italy  and  Africa. 

Reported  martyrdom  of  the  Theban  Legion,  in  Switzer- 
land, under  Herculeus. 

Dionysius,  Bishop  of  Paris,  put  to  death. 


The  Apostolical  Constitutions  and  Canons  are  generally 
supposed  to  be  a  forgery  of  about  this  date.  They  pro- 
bably contain  remnants  of  earlier  compositions ;  but  the 
work,  as  a  whole,  although  attributed  to  Clement  of  Rome, 
appears  to  have  been  compiled  towards  the  close  of  this 
century,  with  a  view  to  support  the  fictitious  pretensions 
of  bishops,  and  to  assist  the  growth  of  episcopal  power. 


292  Galerius  Cassar  in  Italy  ;  Constantius  Chlorus  in  Gaul, 

Spain,  and  Britain. 


TJie  School  of  Antioch  (distinguished  by  its  strictly  lite- 
ral and  historical  interpretation  of  Scripture)  founded  by 
Dorotheus,  a  presbyter. 


296  Origenist  Controversy. 

Methodius,  Bishop  of  Olympus,  attacks  the  doctrines  of 
Origen,  which  are  defended  by  Pamphilus,  a  presbyter 
of  Caesarea  in  Palestine. 


Hierax  teaches  that  Christ  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  mere 
lawgiver. 

Edict  against  the  Manichees. 
(Manicheism  had  now  made  great  progress  in  Egypt.) 


In  his  edict  against  the  Manichees,  Diocletian  manifests 
a  decided  and  exclusive  attachment  to  the  ancient  super- 
stition. 

Diocletian,  from  motives  of  policy  or  humanity,  had 
long  tolerated  the  Christian  religion ;  but  at  length,  in- 
duced probably  by  Galerius,  the  deadly  enemy  of  the 
Christians,  he  manifests  a  disposition  to  persecute. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  49 

Persecution  in  the  court  and  army.  All  soldiers  re- 
quired to  take  part  in  heathen  sacrifices. 

Christians  made  subject  to  civil  disabilities  and  bur- 
dens. 


In  the 

Government  and  Constitution  of  the  Church 

the  Aristocratical  Element 

becomes  more  and  more  predominant. 

Opposition  and  persecution  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
efforts  of  false  teachers  on  the  other,  had  brought  the 
several  churches  into  close  connexion  and  frequent  com- 
munication with  each  other  :  hence  arose  the  idea  of  The 
one  Catholic  Church,  which  had  been  supported  by  the 
writings  of  Irenseus,  Tertullian,  and  Cyprian,  and  was 
now  continually  acquiring  consistency  and  influence.  But 
this  idea  of  the  unity  of  the  Church  was  not  yet  associated 
with  that  of  the  supremacy  of  any  one  bishop,  or  the  sub- 
jection of  the  whole  body  to  the  authority  of  any  visible 
head.  Bishops  were  subject  (under  God)  only  to  pro- 
vincial councils,  in  which  the  metropolitan  presided. 

Concerning  the  Councils  which  met  during  this  century, 
observe, — 

1.  They  were  all  provincial. 

2.  They  were  composed  of  bishops,  presbyters,  dea- 
cons, and  laymen. 

3.  They  were  occupied  about  matters  of  doctrine —  the 
unity  of  the  Church  —  ecclesiastical  ceremonies  —  and 
discipline. 

4.  Their  decrees  were  binding  only  on  churches  re- 
presented in  council. 

5.  The  decrees  of  different  councils  were  sometimes 
inconsistent  with  each  other,  or  even  contradictory. 

The  distinction  between  clergy  and  laity  gradually 
widens  (witness  the  practice  of  Lay  Communion).  A 
haughty   and   secular   spirit    manifests  itself  among  the 

E 


50  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH        (First 


End  of  clergy.  Major  and  minor  orders  of  clergy.  Fondness  of 
Third  power  and  pomp ;  unlike  the  humility  and  simplicity  of 
Cen-     former  times. 

Bishops  were  now  distinguished  by  high-sounding 
titles  and  increasing  influence.  The  equality  of  all 
bishops  zealously  asserted.  Attempts  of  the  bishops  of 
Rome  to  usurp  authority  hitherto  fruitless. 

Presbyters  still  continue  to  perform  ministerial  acts 
which  were  afterwards  restricted  to  bishops. 

Deacons  increase  in  importance;  their  number  still 
limited. 

The  additional  ministers  or  officers  in  large  churches 
were  now  —  Subdeacons ;  Acolyths ;  Readers  ;  Porters  ; 
Exorcists. 

The  first  instances  of  the  translation  of  ministers  from 
one  charge  to  another  occur  during  this  century. 

Country  churches  possess  their  own  bishops  and  pres- 
byters. 


Christians  are  still,  for  the  most  part,  pious  and  exem- 
plary in  their  lives  and  morals.  They  regard  faith  as  the 
source  of  love,  and  love  as  the  parent  of  all  Christian 
virtue. 

But  there  are  many  indications  and  instances  of  cor- 
ruption. Pride  and  indolence  increase.  Jealousies  and 
dissensions  multiply. 

Baptism, 

The  following  additional  ceremonies  are  now  connected 
with  this  rite  :  — - 

1.  Exorcism. 

2.  The  kiss  of  peace. 

3.  Candidates  clothed  in  white  garments. 

4.  Imposition  of  hands  by  a  bishop  regarded  as  neces- 
sary in  some  places. 

Many  persons  now  defer  baptism,  often  until  the  hour 
of  death ;  a  consequence  of  over-wrought  statements  and 
superstitious  notions  respecting  the  nature  and  efficacy 
of  the  sacrament. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  51 

The  Lord's  Supper. 

1.  Consecration  and  distribution  of  the  elements  as 
before. 

2.  Received  by  baptized  persons,  including  children  ; 

3.  In  a  standing  posture. 

4.  Some  abuses  connected  with  the  conveyance  of  the 
elements  to  private  houses. 

5.  Still  received  under  both  forms  ;  but  sometimes  the 
bread  (leavened)  was  dipped  or  soaked  in  the  wine  (mixed 
with  water). 

6.  Publicly  celebrated  on  the  Lord's  day,  but  with 
some  exceptions. 


Penitents  are  now  divided  into  different  classes,  according 
to  the  various  degrees  of  penance. 

In  the  West,  public  confession  preceded  absolution :  in 
the  East,  private  confession  also  was  admitted. 

Fasting  has  risen  in  repute ;  it  is  now  observed  on  Wed- 
nesdays and  Fridays  :  —  during  the  week  before  Easter : 
—  in  some  churches  of  the  West,  on  Saturdays,  but  not 
without  opposition.  Christian  liberty  in  this  respect  is 
not  yet  destroyed. 

Lay  Communion. 

Christians  now  possess  spacious  and  convenient  places 
of  worship  in  some  parts.  Many  of  their  churches  even 
assume  an  appearance  of  splendour. 

Mention  of  Feasts  of  Charity,  and  of  Voluntary  Obla- 
tions, becomes  less  frequent. 

The  Kiss  of  Charity  is  still  in  use. 

The  festivals  continue  as  before :  the  Lord's  day ; 
Easter ;  Whitsuntide ;  Anniversaries  of  Martyrs. 

Great  virtue  begins  to  be  attributed  to  the  Sign  of  the 
Cross. 

The  officers  of  public  worship  are  essentially  the  same  as 
hitherto ;  but  certain  practices  connected  with  the  read- 
ing of  Scripture  have  grown  into  custom ;  and  in  the 
larger  churches  the  duties  of  Reader  are  discharged  by  an 
officer  or  minister  specially  appointed.     Preaching  is  less 

e  2 


52  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH         (First 


End  of   simple  in  its  character  than  formerly,  preachers  aiming  at 
Third    oratorical  effect. 

Cen-         Hours  of  prayer.     The  practice  of  praying  three  times 
a  day  is  adopted  by  many  Christians. 

Celibacy  of  the  clergy  is  not  yet  recognised  by  ecclesiasti- 
cal law. 


TURY. 


The  great  doctrines  of  Christianity  axe  still  (as  hitherto) 
rightly  stated,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers. 

But  errors  likewise  are  found  in  the  works  of  Minucius 
Felix,  Cyprian,  Origen,  and  Methodius. 

Origen  rendered  great  service  to  the  cause  of  Scriptural 
truth  by  his  laborious  revision  of  the  sacred  text,  and  his 
exposition  of  the  literal  sense ;  but  he  contributed  also  to 
pervert  and  obscure  it  by  his  favourite  system  of  allegor- 
ising. 

No  regular  system  of  Christian  doctrine  was  yet  com- 
piled, although  something  of  the  kind  had  been  under- 
taken by  Origen. 

Increasing  admixture  of  philosophy  with  Christian 
theology  :  this  opens  a  door  to  verbal  controversies. 

Baptismal  creeds  or  confessions  of  faith  exhibit  substan- 
tial agreements  with  slight  variations. 

Doctrine  concerning  the  Existence  of  God. 

The  sacred  writers  and  early  Christian  Fathers  do  not 
attempt  in  any  way  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  God. 
Belief  in  the  fact  is  represented  as  a  duty,  and  the  ab- 
sence of  such  belief  a  folly  or  sin;  it  is  treated  as  a 
subject  not  capable  of  demonstration.  Tertullian,  Ar- 
nobius,  and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  appeal  to  innate  ideas 
of  God,  and  contend  on  that  ground  that  proof  is  needless. 
Purity  of  heart  described  as  the  requisite  faculty  for 
apprehending  this  truth. 

The  works  of  nature,  and  the  consent  of  mankind  in 
this  belief,  were  not  supposed  to  furnish  a  demonstration 
of  the  fact,  but  were  regarded  as  a  means  employed  by 
the  Deity  to  lead  men  to  the  knowledge  of  himself. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  53 

End  of  Thus  matters  stood  until  the  time  of  Augustin. 

THE  ° 

0^         Doctrine  concerning  the  Nature  and  attributes  of  God. 
tury.  The  early  Fathers  of  the  Church  taught  simply,  in  ac- 

cordance with  Scripture,  that  God  is  a  Spirit,  and  that 
his  nature  cannot  be  comprehended  by  finite  faculties. 
They  maintained,  especially,  that  God  has  no  name,  and 
that  the  terms  Father,  Creator,  Lord,  are  not  names  of 
the  Divine  Being,  but  only  declarations  of  his  acts  or 
works.  It  was  generally  agreed,  that  the  divine  nature 
or  essence  could  not  be  the  subject  of  definition. 

An  opinion  prevailed  to  some  extent,  during  the  third 
and  fourth  centuries,  that  God  is  not  entirely  incorporeal 
(Anthropomorphism).  The  School  of  Alexandria  eventually 
subverted  this  doctrine,  and  established  that  of  the  abso- 
lute spirituality  of  the  divine  nature. 

We  do  not  find  any  systematic  distribution  and  clas- 
sification of  the  divine  attributes  in  the  writings  of  the 
earlier  Fathers. 


Summary  of  Information  relating  to 
The  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 
In  Asia. 
From  Palestine  soon  to  Antioch  and  Syria,  and  then  to 
Asia  Minor.     Not  long  after,  to  Mesopotamia;  towards 
the  end  of  the  second  century,  the  Prince  of  Edessa  was  a 
Christian.     From  Edessa  to  Persia  ;  Gospel  propagated  in 
Media,  Persia,  Parthia,  Bactria,  in  middle  of  second  cen- 
tury. Also  to  Armenia  during  second  century.  The  Gospel 
was  preached  in  parts  of  Arabia  and  Ethiopia,  by  Pan- 
taenus,  end  of  second  century  (according  to  tradition,  by 
the  Apostle  Thomas).     Christianity  had  made  progress  in 
Arabia  during  the  third  century. 

In  Europe. 

Churches   founded  in  Greece  and  Rome  by  Apostles. 

Churches   at   Lyons  and  Vienne  in   Gaul,  early  part  of 

second    century.      Middle    of   third    centuiy,    churches 

founded  at   Paris   by  Dionysius,     at    Toulouse    by   Sa- 

e  3 


54  FROM   THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

turninus,  and  at  other  places  in  Gaul  by  missionaries 
from  Rome  (according  to  Gregory  of  Tours).  Irenceus 
speaks  of  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  in  Spain  and  Germany. 
End  of  second  century,  Tertullian  speaks  of  the  propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel  in  Britain.  (A  tradition  that  Lucius, 
a  British  king,  received  missionaries  from  Rome  about 
middle  of  second  century ;  but  customs  of  ancient  British 
churches,  corresponding  to  those  of  Asia  Minor,  render  it 
probable  that  the  Gospel  came  from  Gaul  to  Britain.) 

In  Africa. 
The  Gospel  was  preached  in  Egypt,  and  especially  at 
Alexandria,  during  the  lifetime  of  Apostles.  Tradition 
speaks  of  St.  Mark  as  founder  of  the  Church  of  Alex- 
andria. From  Alexandria,  the  Gospel  spread  to  Cyrene 
at  an  early  period.  At  the  end  of  the  second  century,  or 
the  beginning  of  the  third,  Copts  received  the  Gospel 
from  Greek  colonists  of  Egypt.  No  account  concerning 
progress  of  the  Gospel  in  Abyssinia.  During  the  second 
century,  the  Gospel  spread,  probably  from  Rome,  in  Pro- 
consular Africa,  and  especially  at  Carthage.  Christianity 
widely  diffused  in  Mauritania  and  Numidia  during  second 
and  third  centuries. 


303 


300  At  the  commencement  of  this  century,  there  was  a  con- 

siderable number  of  Christians  in  Persia,  under  the  me- 
tropolitan bishop  of  Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon. 

In  Arabia,  Christianity  is  kept  in  check  by  the  hostility 
of  the  Jews. 

Hierocles  writes  against  Christianity ;  drawing  a  com- 
parison between  our  Saviour  and  Apollonius  of  Tyana, 
unfavourable  to  the  former.  Answered  by  Lactantius, 
a.  d.  303. 

Diocletian  enacts  severe  laws  against  the  Christians. 
Anthimus,  Bishop  of  Nicomedia,  put  to  death. 

Beginning  of  the  Ten  Years'  Persecution  (Tenth). 
Churches  destroyed.  Sacred  books  burnt.  Christian 
assemblies  prohibited.     Several  Christians  put  to  death. 

&  British  Churches  suffer  severely  during  this  persecu- 
tion.    Alban,  martyr. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  55 

Galerius  persecutes  in  the  East.  Edicts  for  the  im- 
prisonment of  the  Christian  clergy ;  and  for  compelling, 
first  the  clergy,  afterwards  all  Christians,  to  offer  sacrifice 
to  the  gods. 

No  persecution  under  Constantius  in  Africa,  Gaul, 
Spain,  and  Italy. 


See  of  Rome  vacant  four  years  from  this  time. 

(t  Porphyry.) 

Some  Christians  having  delivered  up  their  copies  of 
the  Scriptures,  in  compliance  with  the  Imperial  Edict,  they 
were  excommunicated  for  this  offence.  The  question  was 
again  keenly  agitated  concerning  the  treatment  of  the 
Lapsed  and  the  Traditores. 


Limits  set  to  the  marriage  of  the  clergy  by  the  Council 
of  Elvira. 

Paintings  in  churches  forbidden  by  the  same  council. 


Abdication  of  Diocletian  and  Maximian. 

Constantius  and  Galerius,  Emperors. 

Severus  and  Maxi  minus,  Caesars. 

Constantius  dies  (at  York). 

Galerius  and  Maximian,  Emperors. 

Constantine,  Maxentius,  Maximinus,  and  Severus  (after 
his  death  Licinius),  Caesars. 


(al.  301.)  Beginning  of  the  Meletian  Schism  in  Egypt, 
During  the  persecution  under  Galerius,  when  Peter  of 
Alexandria  had  sought  safety  by  flight,  and  other  Egyp- 
tian bishops  were  imprisoned  at  Alexandria,  Meletius, 
Bishop  of  Lycopolis,  administered  ordination,  and  also 
discharged  other  episcopal  functions,  in  the  dioceses  of 
the  absent  bishops.  He  continued  this  conduct  notwith- 
standing the  remonstrances  of  the  bishops,  being  sup- 
ported by  Isidorus  and  Arius  (afterwards  celebrated  for 
his  erroneous  tenets),  by  whose  assistance  Meletius  became 

e  4 


56  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

the  bead  of  a  party.  Meletius  deposed.  This  schism  was 
formally  terminated  by  the  Council  of  Nicaea  (325)  ;  but 
many  of  the  Egyptian  clergy  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  the  metropolitan  of  Alexandria  during  nearly 
a  century  afterwards. 

306  Maximinus  persecutes  in  the  East.  Peter,  Bishop  of 
Alexandria,  seeks  safety  in  flight.  Numbers  of  victims  at 
Alexandria  vary  from  ten  to  a  hundred  daily.  Mutilation 
a  favourite  punishment. 

Licinius   and    Maximinus   take  the   title   of  emperor. 
Alexander  assumes  that  title  in  Africa. 

307  Pamphilus  imprisoned  at  Caesarea.  Alexander  per- 
secutes in  Africa. 


Pamphilus  and  Eusebius  write  the  Defence  of  Origen. 
Arnobius,  fl. 


3QQ  Pamphilus  put  to  death. 

Christianity  had  by  this  time  been  introduced  among 
the  Goths. 

(A  Gothic  bishop  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Nicaea, ) 

Antony,  great  patron  of  Monachism,  in  the  deserts  of 

Egypt-  

310  Eusebius  writes  against  Hierocles. 

Thirty-nine  confessors  of  Palestine   beheaded  at  one 
time.  

Hypsistarians,  an  obscure  sect  in  Cappadocia. 


311  Caecilian  elected  Bishop  of  Carthage  by  the  majority 

of  the  Church. 


Rise  of  Donatism. 
Majorinus  opposed  to  Caecilian.     After  this  time,  the. 
Donatists  continued  for  several  years  to  elect  a  bishop  of 
their  own.     The  party  of  the  Donatists   was  composed 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  57 

chiefly  of  those  who  sided  with  the  Montanists,  and  advo- 
cated the  more  severe  discipline. 


Acts  of  Pilate  forged,  containing  a  false  and  calumnious 
account  of  the  life  of  Jesus. 


Alexander  killed  in  Africa.  Galerius  dies,  after  having 
issued  an  edict  in  favour  of  the  Christians. 

Lucianus  put  to  death  at  Antioch.  Peter,  Bishop  of 
Alexandria,  put  to  death.  Maximinus,  finding  his  efforts 
ineffectual,  issues  an  edict  of  toleration  in  favour  of  the 
Christians. 

Constantine  marches  against  Maxentius.  Alleged  Vision 
of  the  Cross.     Maxentius  defeated  and  killed. 

Conversion  of  Constantine. 

Constantine  and  Licinius  publish  an  Edict  of  Toleration, 
intended  for  the  protection  of  Christians.  This  edict, 
misinterpreted,  was  used  as  an  engine  of  persecution. 


f  Lucian  the  Martyr;    a  supporter  of  the   School  of 
Antioch. 

Defeat  and  Death  of  Maximinus. 
Edict  of  Milan. 
Constantine  and  Licinius  publish  a  second  and  more 
express  Edict  in  favour  of  the  Christians,  and  of  universal 
toleration  in  religious  matters. 

Constantine  supports  the  claims  of  Caecilian  at  Car- 
thage. 

Donatus,  Bishop  of  the  Donatists,  after  the  death 
of  Majorinus. 

Council  at  Rome  concerning  the  Donatists. 

Constantine  and  Licinius  at  war  with  each  other. 
Licinius  soon  after  makes  peace  on  disadvantageous 
terms. 

Licinius  persecutes  in  the  East.  Licinius  becomes  the 
champion  of  Paganism,  as  Constantine  was  the  patron  of 
the  Christian  worship. 


58  FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH       (First 

314<  Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Csesarea  in  Palestine. 

Council  of  Aries  decides  against  the  Donatists,  and 
affirms  the  validity  of  baptism  by  heretics. 

*  Three  British  bishops  were  present  at  the   Council 
of  Aries. 

*  Christianity  re-established  in  Britain.      Church  at 
Verulam  in  honour  of  Alban. 

316  Constantine  decides  against  the  Donatists,  having  heard 
the  cause  pleaded  by  delegates  of  both  parties.  Dona- 
tists refuse  to  submit  to  the  decision;  their  enthusiasm 
rises  to  fanaticism,  under  violent  measures. 

317  Constantine  sends  a  letter  to  the  African  bishops, 
enjoining  moderation  towards  the  Donatists. 


318  Rise  of  Arianism. 

Conference  between  Arius  and  his  bishop,  Alexander. 
The  bishop  maintained,  with  the  Church  at  large,  especi- 
ally in  the  West,  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son  of 
God  from  the  Father,  and  his  consubstantiality  with  the 
Father;  Arius  declared  that  the  Son  was  created  by  the 
Father  out  of  nothing,  and  that  there  was  a  time  when 
he  did  not  exist. 


319  Constantine  tolerates  Paganism,  and  protects  the  cele- 
bration of  heathen  rites  by  an  edict.  He  destroys  some 
heathen  temples,  but  only  on  particular  occasions,  or  in 
consequence  of  special  provocation. 

Constantine  fully  exempts  the  clergy  from  liability  to 
serve  in  civil  offices ;  partially  granted  in  313.  This  leads 
to  a  collision  between  the  interests  of  Church  and  State  ; 

320  and  hence  the  emperor  enacts  that  no  person  of  rank  or 
wealth  shall  enter  the  clerical  body.  Efforts  to  unite 
the  interests  of  Church  and  State  in  this  matter  frequent 
until  383.  

About  this  time  Lactantius  completes  his  Institutions. 

321  Constantine  decrees  that  both  parties  in  the  African 
Church  (the  Donatists  and  their  opponents)  should  pos- 
sess equal  rights.  He  persevered  in  this  determination  to 
the  end  of  his  life. 


Period.)  to  the  first  general  council.  59 

Constantine  commands  a  general  cessation  of  business 
on  the  Lord's  day. 

Avians.  Arius  deposed  and  excommunicated  by  a 
council.  He  found  influential  friends  in  Eusebius,  Bishop 
of  Nicomedia,  and  the  sophist  Asterius,  of  Cappadocia. 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  and  other  favourers  of  Origenist 
(Semiarian,  Homceousian)  views  respecting  the  Trinity, 
endeavoured  by  their  mediation  to  restore  peace  in  the 
Church  of  Alexandria.  Constantine  wrote  a  letter,  exhort- 
ing both  parties  to  moderation  and  forbearance  in  their 
speculative  controversies. 

Hosius,  Bishop  of  Corduba,  and  other  Western  bishops, 
persuaded  Constantine  that  the  doctrines  of  Arius  were 
not  consistent  with  the  due  acknowledgment  of  the  divi- 
nity of  Christ. 

Constantine  at  war  with  Licinius.  Licinius  defeated, 
taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death. 

Constantine  sole  Emperor. 

Constantine  makes  laws  for  the  suppression  of  Pagan- 
ism and  the  propagation  of  Christianity. 

Christianity  is  now  the  Religion  of  the  State.  Em- 
perors are  its  professed  guardians.  They  not  only  assert  its 
liberty,  and  protect  its  external  rights  and  privileges,  but  take 
measures  for  the  preservation  of  doctrine  and  support  of  dis- 
cipline. 

Constantine  formally  accords  a  judicial  power  to  bi- 
shops, when  appeal  has  been  voluntarily  made  to  them  by 
both  contending  parties.  By  degrees,  also,  is  established 
the  Intercessio  episcoporum,  or  right  of  bishops  to  act  as 
assessors  or  advisers  of  civil  magistrates. 

Propagation  of  the  Gospel. 
One  half  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Roman  Empire  profess 
Christianity. 


60 


FROM    THE    FOUNDATION    OF    THE    CHURCH 


{First 


Bishops  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Rome,  and  Alexandria, 
to  the  Year  325. 


46. 

(cir.)  Evodius,  Antioch. 

156. 

62. 

Symeon,  Jerusalem. 

161. 

Annianus,  Alexandria. 

163. 

67. 

Linus,   Bishop   of   Rome  ; 

166. 

perhaps   appointed   by    St.  Paul 

168. 

and  St.  Peter. 

N.B. 

The  succession  of  the  early  bishops 

— 

of  Rome  is  involved  in  great  ob- 

— 

scurity  and  contradiction. 

— 

68. 

Anencletus,  Rome. 

171. 

70. 

Ignatius,  Antioch. 

173. 

82. 

Abilius,  Alexandria. 

— 

93. 

(al.  91.)  Clement,  Rome. 

176. 

97. 

Cerdo.  Alexandria. 

179. 

]00. 

Evarestus,  Rome. 

181. 

104. 

Justus,  Jerusalem. 

— 

107. 

Hero,  Antioch. 

— 

Alexander,  Rome. 

184 

Primus,  Alexandria. 

187. 

112. 

Zacchceus,  Jerusalem. 

188. 

114. 

Tobias,  Jerusalem. 

189. 

116. 

(al.  119.)  Xystus  or  Sixtus, 

— 

Rome. 

190. 

— 

Benjamin,  Jerusalem, 

193. 

120. 

Matthias,  Jerusalem. 

196. 

— 

Justus,  Alexandria. 

201. 

122. 

Philip,  Jerusalem. 

202. 

125. 

Seneca,  Jerusalem, 

205. 

126. 

Justus,  Jerusalem. 

208. 

128. 

Levi,  Jerusalem. 

211. 



Telesphorus,  Rome. 

214. 

129. 

Cornelius,  Antioch. 

217. 

130. 

Ephrem,  Jerusalem. 

218. 

131. 

Eumenes,  Alexandria. 

222. 

132. 

Joseph,  Jerusalem. 

229. 

133. 

Judas,  Jerusalem. 

230. 

135. 

Marcus,  Jerusalem. 

232. 

138. 

Hyginus,  Rome. 

238. 

141. 

Heros,  Antioch. 

142. 

Pius,  Rome. 

239. 

143. 

Marcus,  Alexandria. 

247. 

153. 

Celadion,  Alexandria. 

250. 

AnicetuSj  Rome. 
Cassianus,  Jerusalem. 
Publius,  Jerusalem. 
Maximianus,  Jerusalem. 
Julianus,  Jerusalem. 
Theophilus,,  Antioch. 
Soter,  Rome. 
Agrippinus,  Alexandria. 
Caius,  Jerusalem. 
Symmachus,  Jerusalem. 
Eleutherus,  Rome. 
Caius,  Jerusalem. 
Julianus,  Jerusalem. 
Apion,  Jerusalem. 
Maximinus,  Antioch. 

Julianus,  Alexandria. 

Maximus,  Jerusalem, 
Antonius,  Jerusalem. 

Demetrius,  Alexandria. 

Serapion,  Antioch. 
(al.  185.)  Victor  I.,  Rome. 
Valens,  Jerusalem. 
Dulichianus,  Jerusalem. 
Narcissus,  Jerusalem, 
Zephyrinus,  Rome. 
Dius,  Jerusalem. 
Germanio,  Jerusalem. 
Gordianus,  Jerusalem. 
Asclepiades,  Antioch. 
Alexander,  Jerusalem, 
Philetus,  Antioch. 
Callistus,  Rome. 
Urbanus,  Rome. 
Zebinus,  Antioch. 
Pontianus,  Rome. 

Heraclas,  Alexandria. 
Anteros,  "I  p^TT, 

-r,  J-  tlOME. 

iABIANUS,  J 

Babylas,  Antioch. 

Dionysius,  Alexandria. 
Fabius,  Antioch. 


Period.) 


TO    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL. 


61 


251.  Cornelius,  Rome. 

252.  Lucius,  Rome. 

—  Demetrianus,  Antioch. 

253.  Stephen,  Rome. 
257.  Sixtus  II.,  Rome. 

259.  Dionysius,  Rome. 

260.  Paul,  Antioch. 

264.  HymenceuSy  Jerusalem. 

265.  Maximus,  Alexandria. 

269.  Felix,  Rome. 

—  Domnus,  Antioch 
274.  Eutychianus,  Rome. 
276.  Timaeus,  Antioch. 

281.  Cyril,  Antioch. 

282.  Theonas,  Alexandria. 

283.  Caius,  Rome. 


297.  Zabdas,  Jerusalem. 

299.  Tyrannus,  Antioch. 
—  Hermori)  Jerusalem. 

300.  Peter.,  Alexandria. 

304.  Marcellinus,  Rome. 

(See  of  Rome  vacant). 

308.  Marcellus,  Rome. 

300.  Eusebius, 


Eusebius,        "1  t, 
Melchiades,JRome- 

exai 

J 


Alexandria. 


311.  Peter,  Alexandria. 

312.  Achillas, 
—      Alexander, 

313.  Melchiades,  Rome. 

314.  Silvester,  Rome. 

—  {ALEXANDER,  BYZANTIUM.) 
326.    Athanasius,  Alexandria. 


Councils  before  the  Year  3'25. 


Councils  in  Asia  Minor  and 
Thrace,  against  the  Mon- 
tanists  and  other  false 
teachers,  between  150 
and  173. 
(Euseb.  H.E.  v.  16.) 

(Provincial)  Councils  in  va- 
rious parts  of  Christendom, 
concerning  the  time  of 
celebrating  Easter,  be- 
tween 196  and  199. 

Before  the  end  of  this  cen- 
tury, the  practice  of  as- 
sembling annual  councils 
had  been  adopted  in  Asia 
Minor. 
215.  Carthage  ;  against  baptism 
by  heretics. 

230.  Alexandria. 

231.  Iconium. 
240.  Carthage. 

242.  Bostra,  in  Arabia  (concern- 
ing Beryllus). 


245.  Ephesus  (against  Noetus). 

251.  Carthage  (against  Felicissi- 

mus,  and  concerning  the 
Lapsed). 

—  Rome  (against  Novatian). 

252.  Carthage   (infant   baptism ; 

and  baptism  by  heretics). 

—  Antioch  (against.  Novatian.) 

253.  Carthage    (baptism    of    in- 

fants). 

254.  Carthage. 

255.  Carthage  (baptism   by  he- 

retics). 

256.  Carthage    (baptism   by  he- 

retics). 

—  Rome  (against  the  decisions 

of  Carthage). 
258.  Rome  (against  the  doctrines 

of  Noetus). 
260.  Rome     (under     Dionysius, 

concerning  Dionysius   of 

Alexandria). 
265.  Antioch    (against    Paul    of 

Samosata). 


62      FROM  THE  FOUNDATION  OF  THE  CHURCH,  ETC. 

269.  Antioch  (Paul  deposed).  315.  (al.  314.  318.)  Ancyra  (con- 

305.  (al.  313.324.)  Illiberis  (El-  '    cerning  the  Lapsed). 

vira),  (on  discipline).  —     Neocaesarea  (on  discipline). 

—     Cirta,  in  Numidia.  321.  Alexandria   (Arius  excom- 

312.  Carthage  (Csecilian  deposed  municated). 

by  the  Donatists).  —     (Other  councils,  in  Bithynia 

313.  Rome    (against   the   Dona-  and  Palestine,    in  favour 

tists).  of  Arius). 

314.  Aries    (against   the    Dona-  324.  Alexandria  (against  Arians 

tists).  and  Colluthians). 


END    OF    THE    FIRST    PERIOD. 


PERIOD   II. 

FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL    TO    THE    DEATH 
OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST. 

325—604. 


325 


CONSTANTINE,    EMPEROR. 

Rule  of  Faith  settled  by  Imperial  authority.     Heterodox 
banished.     Religious  liberty  abridged. 
The  Council  of  Nic^ea.  —  It  was  composed  almost 
entirely  of  members  of  Oriental  Churches. 

First  General  Council 
Convened,  and  ratified,  by  the  emperor. 

The  Council  enacts  that  the  election  of  every  provincial 
bishop  shall  be  confirmed  by  the  metropolitan,  before  his 
ordination,  which  shall  be  performed  by  not  less  than 
three  bishops ;  —  that  deacons  shall  not  usurp  the  privi- 
leges of  presbyters ;  —  that  two  councils  shall  be  held 
every  year  in  each  province. 

Measures  for  putting  an  end  to  the  Meletian  Schism. 

The  doctrine  of  Arius  that  the  Son  of  God  is  not  co- 
eternal  with  the  Father,  and  that  he  is  a  created  being, 
condemned  as  heretical  by  the  Council. 

Nicene  Creed,  or  Confession  of  Faith, 
in  which  the  Son  of  God  is  declared  to  be  6f*,oov<rio§  tw 
7rarpi,  consubstantial  with  the  Father. 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea  proposed  a  confession  of  faith 
which  all  parties  could  subscribe.  But  Alexander  and  his 
friends,  including  Athanasius,  a  young  deacon  of  Alexan- 


64  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

dria  of  great  ability,  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  a  formal 
and  unequivocal  condemnation  of  the  tenets  of  Arius. 
Accordingly,  certain  additions  were  made  to  the  confession 
of  Eusebius,  which  received  the  sanction  of  the  emperor. 
Hence  the  Nicene  Creed.  Eusebius  subscribed  this  confes- 
sion ;  which,  however,  he  interpreted  in  accordance  with 
his  own  views  :  and  he  persuaded  other  Origenist  or  Semi- 
arian  Oriental  bishops  to  do  the  same. 

Arius,  Theonas,  and  Secundus,  refusing  to  receive  this 
confession,  were  banished  to  Illyria.  Eusebius  of  Nico- 
media  and  Theognis  of  Nicaea  were  banished  to  Gaul :  — 
in  a  confession  presented  by  the  former,  the  Son  of  God 
is  declared  to  be  only  ofxoiovo-ioc,  i.  e.  of  like  substance 
with  the  Father. 


Religious  ceremonies  increase  greatly  in  number  and  pomp. 
Christian  worship  systematised.  Heathen  rites  adopted  or 
imitated.     Splendid  vestments. 

Dispute  respecting  the  time  of  celebrating  Easter, 
settled  by  the  Council  of  Nic&a.       The  Jewish    customs 
of  Asia  Minor  rejected. 

Celibacy  of  the  Clergy. 
At  the  council  of  Nicaea  an  attempt  was  made  to 
establish  strictly  and  universally  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy;  but,  upon  the  motion  of  Paphnutius,  it  was 
merely  enacted  that  all  bishops,  presbyters,  or  deacons, 
unmarried  at  the  time  of  their  ordination,  should  not  be 
permitted  to  marry  afterwards. 

About  this  time  Pachomius  establishes  in  Egypt  the  rules 
of  a  strictly  monastic  life. 
326  Helena,  mother  of  Constantine,  said  to  have  found  the 

cross  on  which  our  Lord  died,  at  Jerusalem. 


Constantine  puts  to  death  his  son  Crispus,  and  after- 
wards his  wife  Fausta. 


f  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Alexandria.      Athanasius  suc- 
ceeds. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.       65 

f  Lactantius  (probably  between  325  and  330). 


About  this  time,  a  thousand  bishops  presided  over  the 
Eastern  Church,  and  eight  hundred  over  the  Western. 

Testamentary  bequests  in  favour  of  the  Church  per- 
mitted. 

The  clergy  exempted  from  civil  offices  and  burdens. 


The  adherents  of  the  Jewish  custom  as  to  the  time  of 
celebrating  Easter  formed  henceforth  a  distinct  party, 
opposed  to  the  Catholic  Church,  under  the  name  of 
Tsa-vupza-xutisxoLTiTOLi,  Quartodecimani  ;  so  called  from  their 
celebration  of  the  festival  on  the  fourteenth  day  of  Nisan. 


Avians.  Constantine,  influenced  by  Eusebius  of  Caesa- 
rea,  and  other  Semiarian  bishops,  and  probably  by  his 
sister  Constantia,  recurs  to  his  original  opinion,  that 
Arius  did  not  virtually  deny  the  divinity  of  Christ ;  and 
that  much  of  the  opposition  which  had  been  made  to  him 
and  his  doctrines  had  originated  in  jealousy. 
Arius  and  the  bishops  of  his  party  recalled  from  exile. 

Many  heathen  temples  converted  into  churches. 
Discipline    variously    enforced    in    different    places. 
Councils  frequently  employed   in   the  regulation  of  this 
matter.     Distinction    between    the   clergy   and    laity  in 
point  of  discipline. 

Christianity  introduced  into  Iberia. 


Constantinople,  as  a  Christian  city,  the  imperial  resi- 
dence. 

New  division  of  the  Roman  empire  into  prefectures, 
dioceses,  and  provinces. 

A  party  of  Donatists  having  demolished  a  church  be- 
longing to  Catholics,  the  emperor  compels  the  destroyers 
to  rebuild  it  at  their  own  cost. 


Eustathius,   Bishop  of  Antioch,   deposed.     His  adhe- 
rents (Eustathians)  begin  a  schism. 


66  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

Rise  of  the  Dignity  and  Power  of  Metropolitans. 


331 


335 


336 


337 


About   this  time    Eusebius    writes   his    Ecclesiastical 
History  and  other  works. 

Juvencus,  a  Christian  poet,  fl. 


In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  Constantine  published 
an  edict  (which,  however,  did  not  take  effect),  prohibiting 
the  public  exercise  of  heathen  worship,  —  Sacrificia 
publica. 

Arians.  Constantine  declares  himself  satisfied  with  a 
confession  of  faith  presented  to  him  by  Arius,  and 
commands  his  restoration,  as  presbyter,  in  the  Church  of 
Alexandria.  Athanasius,  now  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
maintains,  however,  that  the  doctrine  of  Arius  is  un- 
christian, and  refuses  to  obey  the  emperor's  injunction. 
Hereupon  the  enemies  of  Athanasius  represent  him  to 
the  emperor  as  hostile  to  the  peace  of  the  Church. 

Athanasius  summoned  before  a  council  at  Tyre,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  his  declared  enemies.  Dissatisfied  with  the 
course  of  their  proceedings,  he  repairs  to  Constantinople, 
to  demand  of  the  emperor  a  new  hearing  and  examination. 
Deposed  by  the  council.  Next  year,  336,  the  enemies  of 
Athanasius  again  assemble  at  Constantinople.  Athanasius 
banished  to  Treves,  in  Gaul.  Marcellus  of  Ancyra 
deposed. 

Arius,  having  been  restored  to  the  communion  of  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem,  seeks  the  same  reception  at  Con- 
stantinople. Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  a  day  is  fixed  for  his  re-admission  into  the 
Church;  but  before  the  arrival  of  the  appointed  time 
Arius  dies  suddenly. 

Marcellus,  Bishop  of  Ancyra,  who  held  peculiar  doc- 
trines respecting  the  nature  of  Christ,  deposed  by  the 
Eusebians,  in  a  council  at  Constantinople. 


Constantine  baptized,  shortly  before  his  death,  by  the 
Arian  bishop  Eusebius,  of  Nicomedia. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         67 

337  f  Constantine.     Buried  in  the  Church  of  the  Apostles 

at  Constantinople ;  —  first  instance  of  the  kind. 

Constantine  II.  and  Constans,  Emp.  West. 

CONSTANTIUS,  EMP.  EAST. 

Constantine  II.  and  Constans  favour  the  Nicene  expo- 
sition of  doctrine.     Constantius  supports  the  Arians. 


Avians.  Constans  restores  Athanasius  ;  who  is  enthusi- 
astically received  by  his  church  at  Alexandria. 

The  enemies  of  Athanasius  engage  Constantius  in 
their  interest  against  him,  and  seek  to  enlist  on  their 
side  also  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome.  Julius  demands  that 
both  parties  appear  before  a  council  of  Western  bishops. 
Athanasius  willing  to  comply;  not  so  his  opponents. 


War  with  Persia,  with  various  success,  until  363. 


Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 


f  Constantine  II. 


f  Paul  the  Hermit,    f  Eusebius  of  Caesarea. 


Monachism. 
The  monastic  spirit  did  not  spread  so  soon  or  so  ra- 
pidly in  the  West  as  in  the  East.  But  it  made  its  way 
even  there.  Athanasius,  during  his  exile  in  Gaul,  brought 
it  into  repute,  and  published  his  "  Life  of  Antony."  It 
was  introduced  about  this  time,  by  Hilarion,  into  Syria 
and  Palestine.     Nuns  in  Egypt. 


Constantius  zealous  for  the  suppression  of  Paganism. 
An  edict  against  the  celebration  of  heathen  sacrifices 
(renewed  in  346,  350,  353,  356),  with  orders  for  closing 
of  the  temples.  Some  temples  destroyed,  others  converted 
into  Christian  churches. 


Council  of  Antioch ;  against  Athanasius  and  Marcellus 
of  Ancyra. 


f  2 


68  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

Gregory,   Arian  Bishop   of    Alexandria.     Athanasius 
flees  to  Rome. 
Macedonius  (Eusebian)  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
342  Council  at  Rome,  in  favour  of  Athanasius. 


Avians.  (341.)  The  Council  of  An tioch  deposes  Athan- 
asius, and  appoints  Gregory  of  Cappadocia  Bishop  of 
Alexandria.  Athanasius  flees  to  Rome.  (341  and  342.) 
The  bishops  of  Antioch  (for  the  most  part  Semiarian),  in 
order  to  prove  their  orthodoxy,  publish  four  confessions 
of  faith,  approaching  very  nearly  to  the  Nicene  doctrine, 
but  avoiding  the  term  bpoov<rioc.  (343.)  The  Council 
of  Antioch  condemns  the  tenets  of  Photinus,  who  had  re- 
vived the  doctrine  of  Paul  of  Samosata. 

Donatists. 
Constans,  hoping  to  reconcile  the  Donatists  to  the 
dominant  church,  showed  them  great  favour,  and  made 
them  a  grant  of  money.  Donatus  returned  the  money, 
with  a  strong  protestation  against  such  an  alliance  of 
Church  and  State.  Constans  then  adopted  violent  mea- 
sures ;  by  which  means  the  contest  between  Donatists 
and  Catholics  became  more  fierce  than  ever. 

Circumcelliones  among  the  Donatists. 


Persecution  of  Christians  in  Persia,  under  Sapor,  be- 
gins.— (343.)  Symeon,  Bishop  of  Seleucia,  put  to  death. 
The  Magi  had  represented  the  Christians  as  in  league 
with  the  Roman  emperor,  or  favouring  his  cause. 


343  Tlie  Power  and  Privileges  of  Metropolitans  confirmed  and 

increased  by  the  Council  of  Antioch. 


Julius  Firmicus  Maternus,  fl. 


The  number  of  days  appointed  to  be  kept  holy  in  com- 
memoration of  saints  is  now  considerable. 


345  Arians.     The  Antinicene  bishops  at  Antioch  publish  a 

fifth   confession  of  faith,   more  copious  than  the  others 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         69 

(paxpoo-TiXo;  exQecri$)9  in  which  the  Son  of  God  is  styled 
perfect  and  very  God,  like  to  the  Father  in  all  things. 
The  Western  Church,  however,  persists  in  adhering  to  the 
creed  of  Nicaea.  Hence  a  Division  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches. 

Council  at  Milan  condemns  the  doctrines  of  Photinus, 
who  taught  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  but  miraculously 
born,  and  endued  with  divine  powers.  His  followers 
were  called  Homunciones. 

Athanasius  returns  to  Alexandria. 

(al.  344.)  A  general  council  convened  by  Constantius 
at  Sardica  in  Illyria,  for  composing  the  difference  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches ;  but,  in  consequence 
of  the  conflicting  interests  of  the  Oriental  or  Nicene  and 
the  Western  bishops,  the  council  divided  itself  into  two  ; 
one  (Oriental)  at  Philippopolis,  which  confirmed  the 
fourth  creed  of  Antioch;  and  the  other  (Western)  at  Sar- 
dica, which  supported  the  decrees  of  Nicaea,  denouncing 
all  further  definitions  or  explanations. 

The  decrees  of  Sardica,  supported  by  Constans  and 
Constantius,  were  generally  received,  even  in  the  East. 
Athanasius  restored. 

It  was  enacted  by  the  Council  of  Sardica  that  none 
should  be  eligible  as  bishop  without  having  previously 
discharged  the  office  of  reader,  deacon,  or  presbyter. 

By  this  council  a  kind  of  general  right  of  supervision 
was  given  to  the  bishop  of  Rome.  It  was  decreed  that  if  a 
foreign  bishop  should  appeal  from  the  decisions  of  his 
church  to  the  bishop  of  Rome,  the  latter  should  institute 
a  new  examination  of  the  case  by  the  neighbouring  bi- 
shops, and  should  send  to  the  assembly  a  presbyter  as  his 
own  representative  and  plenipotentiary. 

*  British  bishops  were  present  at  the  Council  of 
Sardica. 

Constans  killed.     Constantius  sole  emperor. 


Cyril,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem. 
f  3 


70  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

350  Festival  of  the   Nativity  celebrated  at  Rome  on  the 

25th  of  December. 


About  this  time,  Theophilus  probably  laboured  for  the 
propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  India.  Subsequently  amongst 
the  Homerites,  or  Sabseans,  in  Arabia  Felix. 

Iberians  on  the  Black  Sea  (in  Georgia)  converted  to 
Christianity,  in  consequence  of  the  good  example  and  in- 
fluence of  a  female  slave. 

Gospel  propagated  in  Abyssinia  by  iEdesius ;  in  Ethio- 
pia, by  Frumentius. 

During  this  century,  the  Gospel  makes  progress  in 
Armenia.  Gregory  (Illuminator)  converts  the  king  Tiri- 
dates.  Hilarion  and  other  monks  endeavour  to  propagate 
Christianity  among  the  Nomadic  Arabs. 


Church  and  State. 

During  this  century,  1.  The  emperors  convened,  and 
presided  in,  general  councils;  2.  Confirmed  their  de- 
crees ;  3.  Enacted  laws  relative  to  ecclesiastical  matters 
by  their  own  authority;  4.  Pronounced  decisions  con- 
cerning heresies?  and  controversies  ;  5.  Appointed 
bishops;  6.  And  inflicted  punishment  on  ecclesiastical 
persons. 

Hence  arose  complaints  that  the  bishops  had  conceded 
too  much  to  the  emperors  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  some 
persons  maintained  that  the  emperors  had  left  too  much 
in  the  hands  of  the  bishops.  The  bishops  certainly  did 
possess  too  much  power  and  influence,  to  the  prejudice  of 
the  other  clergy,  and  especially  to  the  disadvantage  of 
Christians  at  large. 

Bishops  become  more  and  more  independent  of  their 
presbyteries.  As  a  body,  they  possess  legislative  power  in 
councils  ;  as  individuals,  their  exercise  of  judicial  authority 
adds  to  their  importance.  Growing  opinion  of  their  apos- 
tolical authority  and  descent.  Learning  and  eloquence  of 
many  among  them  increase  respect  for  the  whole  order. 
The  laity  retain  a  negative  vote  in  the  election  of  bishops ; 
—  great  irregularities  attend  the  exercise  of  this  right 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.        71 

Translations  of  bishops,  forbidden  by  the  Council  of  Nicaea, 
sometimes  take  place. 

Thus,  the  emperor  and  the  bishops  share  the  chief 
government  of  the  Church  between  them;  but  the  limits 
of  their  authority  were  not  well  denned.  Great  part  of 
the  power  formerly  possessed  by  the  general  body  of 
Christians  (the  laity)  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
civil  governor. 

During  this  century,  care  continues  to  be  used  in  set- 
tling the  canon  of  Scripture. 

Scriptural  doctrines  concerning  the  Holy  Trinity  in 
Unity,  and  the  nature  of  Christ,  are  not  only  maintained, 
but  carefully  expounded  and  settled ;  —  a  benefit  which 
resulted  to  the  Church  from  the  circumstance  of  its  teachers 
being  called  upon  to  expose  and  resist  the  Arian,  Photi- 
nian,  Macedonian,  and  Apollinarian  errors. 

But  some  unscriptural  tenets  on  other  subjects  are 
advanced  or  implied  in  the  writings  of  almost  all  the  emi- 
nent Fathers  of  this  age. 


Gall  us,  Caesar,  in  Syria. 
Julian,  brother  of  Gallus,  studies  at  Constantinople  and 
Nicomedia.  Already  prejudiced  against  Christians,  he 
becomes  decided  in  his  hostility  by  reading  the  works  of 
Libanius.  The  Pagan  party,  roused  by  persecution,  seek 
to  attach  him  more  firmly  to  their  interests. 


First  Council  of  Sirmium. 

Arians.  (351.)  Constans  being  d^ad,  the  enemies  of 
Athanasius  use  their  influence  with  Constantius  against 
the  bishop.  A  council  assembled  at  Sirmium,  in  Panno- 
nia,  deposes  Photinus,  Bishop  of  Sirmium,  who  maintained 
that  Christ  was  a  mere  man ;  and  condemns  the  doctrine 
of  Marcellus  of  Ancyra,  a  friend  of  Athanasius. 

The  enemies  of  Athanasius,  determined,  if  possible,  to 
effect  his  ruin,  notwithstanding  the  support  of  the  Western 

f  4 


72  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

Church,  prevail  upon  Constantius,  during  his  residence  in 
in  the  West,  to  command  all  Western  bishops  to  subscribe 
a  condemnation  of  his  person. 

At  the  Councils  of  Aries  in  353,  and  of  Milan  in  355, 
the  greater  part  of  the  Western  bishops  were  induced  to 
join  in  condemning  Athanasius;  others,  who  persisted  in 
refusing  to  do  so,  were  deposed  or  banished,  —  including 
Liberius  of  Rome,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  and  Lucifer  of 
Cagliari.  Thus  a  momentary  silence  was  imposed  upon 
the  Western  Church,  and  George  of  Cappadocia  was 
made  Bishop  of  Alexandria.  Valens  and  Ursacius,  Arian 
bishops,  exercise  great  influence  over  the  emperor.  Felix, 
Bishop  of  Rome,  Arian ;  Auxentius,  Bishop  of  Milan, 
Semiarian. 

Arianism  at  its  height. 


354  Constantius  causes  G alius  to  be  put  to  death. 

355  Julian,  Caesar,  in  Gaul,  after  having  studied  at  Athens, 
together  with  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Basil. 


Monachism. 


The  passion  for  a  monastic  life  had  now  become  very 
prevalent,  and  was  attended  with  injurious  consequences 
to  Church  and  State.  Many  had  become  monks  out  of 
vanity  or  idleness,  merely  as  following  the  example  of 
others.  The  institute  operated  injuriously  to  religion  by 
means  of  the  obscurity  which  ascetic  doctrine  and  prac- 
tices threw  over  the  way  of  salvation,  and  by  the  fanatical 
spirit  which  was  fostered  among  the  monks.  It  was  de- 
trimental to  the  state  by  withdrawing  from  the  business 
of  life  many  who  ought  to  have  taken  an  active  part  in 
civil  offices.  Men  left  their  wives,  and  servants  their 
masters,  under  colour  of  peculiar  sanctity.  Many  refused 
to  acknowledge  married  priests  as  worthy  of  the  clerical 
office.  —  Eustathius,  Bishop  of  Sebaste  in  Armenia,  was  a 
great  advocate  of  the  monastic  life. 

During  this  century,  monks  become  divided  into  two 
great  classes,  —  Anchorites  and  Cenobites. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  73 

356  t  Antony  (the   Great), 

a  celebrated  promoter  of  Monachism. 


Gregory  Nazianzen  teaches  Rhetoric  at  Athens. 


Athanasius  retires  to  the  deserts  of  Egypt.  Hilary, 
Bishop  of  Poitiers,  an  opponent  of  Arianism,  banished  to 
Phrygia. 

Second  Council  of  Sirmium,  against  Photinus,  and  in 
support  of  Arianism.  Hosius  induced  to  subscribe  an 
Arian  confession  of  faith. 

Council  of  Antioch.  —  Aetius,  Eudoxius,  Acacius,  and 
Eunomius,  contend  for  the  strict  Arian  or  Anomcean 
doctrine.     Council  of  Ancyra. 

Liberius  restored  to  his  bishopric  (Rome)  after  having 
subscribed  an  Arian  confession  of  faith.  He  subsequently 
adhered  to  the  Nicene  or  orthodox  doctrine,  notwithstand- 
ing this  abjuration. 

Avians.  Arians  and  Semiarians  had  hitherto  been 
united  in  their  opposition  to  the  adherents  of  the  Nicene 
Creed.  After  the  victory  which  they  had  obtained,  their 
own  differences  of  opinion  led  to  dissensions  among  them- 
selves. The  strict  Arians,  headed  by  Aetius,  a  deacon  of 
Antioch,  and  Eunomius,  Bishop  of  Cyzicus,  declare  that 
the  Son  of  God  is  unlike  the  Father  as  to  his  substance 
(uvo^oios  xar  ov<rlctv)  ;  hence  called  Anomceans.  The 
Semiarians,  on  the  contrary,  assert  a  likeness  of  sub- 
stance in  the  Son  and  the  Father ;  hence  called 
Homceousians, —  with  Basil,  Bishop  of  Ancyra,  and 
George  of  Laodicea,  at  their  head. 

In  order  to  prevent  an  open  rupture,  the  Council  of 
Sirmium,  in  357,  under  the  influence  of  Ursacius  and 
Valens,  Anomcean  bishops,  declared  all  definitions  and 
assertions  concerning  the  substance  of  the  Son  of  God  to 
be  unscriptural,  and  beyond  the  human  understanding. 
Second  Creed  of  Sirmium.  —  But  the  Homceousians,  disco- 
vering the  design  of  the  Anomceans,  procure  a  synodal 
letter  in  favour  of  their  own  doctrines  from  a  council  as- 
sembled, in  358,  at  Ancyra,  under  Basil. 


74  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  {Second 

359  Tliird  Council  of  Sirmium.  —  Council  at  Ariminum,  of 

Catholics  and  Arians.  The  former  insist  upon  the  Nicene 
doctrine,  but  are  soon  afterwards  induced  to  subscribe  a 
Semiarian  confession  at  Nice.  Council  at  Seleucia,  com- 
posed of  Semiarians  and  Anomceans.  Divisions  among  the 
Arians. 

Constantius  had  resolved  to  convene  a  general  coun- 
cil as  the  only  means  of  peace.  The  strict  Arians,  or 
Anomceans,  fearing  lest  the  Nicene  and  Homceousian 
bishops  should  unite  against  themselves,  Ursacius  and  his 
Arian  friends  combine  with  some  leaders  of  the  Semi- 
arians in  a  council  at  Sirmium,  and  prepare  a  creed, 
the  third  Sirmian  Creed,  for  presentation  at  the  ap- 
proaching general  council.  This  creed  approximated 
most  nearly  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Semiarians,  who,  how- 
ever, consented  to  avoid  all  definitions  respecting  the  ou<ria9 
and  merely  asserted  that  the  Son  of  God  was  "  like  unto 
the  Father  in  all  things"  (opoiog  xchtol  t:6lvtoC),  accord- 
ing to  the  Scriptures.  The  Arians,  not  satisfied  with 
this,  resolved  at  all  events  to  prevent  the  union  of  the  two 
adverse  parties,  induced  the  emperor  to  convene,  instead 
of  one  general  council,  two  separate  councils,  an  Oriental 
council  at  Seleucia  in  Isauria,  and  a  Western  at  Ariminum 
[Rimini)  in  Italy.  Their  partisans  divided  themselves 
between  both  councils,  in  order  to  overreach  the  Western 
Nicene  bishops  and  the  Semiarians  of  the  East.  The 
Council  at  Seleucia  at  first  resolved  to  adhere  to  the  fourth 
creed  of  Antioch,  and  that  at  Ariminum  to  the  Nicene. 
The  Council  of  Ariminum  sent  ambassadors  to  the  empe- 
ror with  its  decisions,  and  a  petition  praying  for  dismissal 
of  the  bishops  to  their  respective  dioceses.  Ursacius  and 
Valens  took  measures  to  prevent  their  legates  from  re- 
ceiving an  audience  ;  and  having  wearied  them  with  delay, 
at  length  prevailed  upon  them  to  subscribe  a  confession, 
essentially  the  third  Sirmian  Creed,  declaring  that  the  Son 
of  God  is  like  the  Father  (omitting  in  all  things),  accord- 
ing to  the  Scriptures.  Valens  by  arguments  and  threats 
prevailed  upon  the  bishops  still  at  Ariminum  to  adopt  the 
creed  thus  subscribed  by  their  representatives. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of   Gregory  the   first.        75 

Thus,  under  the  plea  that  the  Western  Church  had 
consented  to  abandon  the  Nicene  Creed,  the  representatives 
of  the  Seleucian  Council  were  induced  to  adopt  the  same 
confession  ;  and  Constantius  declared  that  all  who  should 
henceforth  raise  the  question  concerning  the  substance 
(oucr/a)  of  the  Son  of  God,  should  be  treated  as  enemies 
of  the  peace  of  the  Church. 

But  neither  of  the  contending  parties  was  satisfied  with 
what  had  taken  place,    those   who   had   subscribed    the 
creed  being  regarded  as  traitors  to  the  cause  of  truth  ; 
and,  with  the  death  of  Constantius  in  361,  the  scheme  of 
Ursacius  and  Valens  failed. 

(N.B.  *  Many  British  bishops  present  at  the  Council  of 
Ariminum.) 


Phoobadius  fl. 


Macedonius, 
Semiarian  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  deposed  by  the 
Arians.  He  denied  the  consubstantiality  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  with  the  Father.  His  followers  were  called  Mace- 
donians, or  Pneumatomachi.  Their  opinions  were  con- 
demned by  the  Council  of  Alexandria  (362). 


t  Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Emisa. 


Constantius  causes  the  supposed  relics  of  St.  Andrew, 
St.  Luke,  and  Timothy,  to  be  conveyed  to  the  Church  of 
the  Apostles  at  Constantinople. 


Julian,  Emperor. 

Julian  openly  renounces  the  Christian  religion,  and  en- 
deavours to  re-establish  Paganism.  He  commands  uni- 
versal toleration.  This  toleration  becomes  decisive  in 
favour  of  the  Nicene  exposition  of  doctrine. 


Meletius,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  deposed.     His  adherents 
(Meletians)  separate  from  the  Eustathians. 


76  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

36 1  Second  Meletian  Schism. 

J  Macedonius. 

Gregory  Nazianzen  ordained  presbyter. 
t  Hosius,  Bishop  of  Corduba. 

362  Athanasius  and  the  Council  of  Alexandria  attempt  in 
vain  to  put  an  end  to  the  Meletian  Schism.  Divisions  at 
Antioch  multiplied.  The  council  excuses  those  bishops 
who  had  lately,  out  of  ignorance  or  fear,  subscribed  the 
creed  of  Arian  origin. 


Julian  writes  against  Christianity;  grants  permission 
to  the  Jews  to  rebuild  the  Temple ;  forbids  Christians  to 
teach  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences ;  commands  all  Christ- 
ian sects  to  tolerate  each  other;  recals  the  exiled 
bishops,  and  restores  them  to  their  office,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Athanasius,  who  is  again  compelled  to  quit 
Alexandria.  Christians  lose  all  their  immunities  and 
privileges.  Apollinaris,  a  presbyter  of  Laodicea,  and  his 
son,  bishop  of  that  city,  write  against  Julian  and  Hea- 
thenism. 

Donatists. 

(361 — 363.)  Julian  secured  toleration  to  the  Donatists 
in  Africa;  they  recovered  their  churches,  which  had 
been  taken  from  them,  and  continued  to  exist  as  a  distinct 
but  moderate  party. 

#  Soon  afterwards  divisions  arose  among  the  Donatists 
themselves.  Tichonius  attempted  to  establish  a  middle 
system,  between  those  of  the  Catholics  and  the  more 
strict  Donatists. 

Avians. 

3(33  Athanasius  returns  to  Alexandria.     Council  of  Alex- 

andria asserts  the  Nicene  doctrine,  and  the  divinity  of 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Communion  with  all  who  receive  the 
Nicene  Creed,  without  reference  to  former  opinions. 

Valens,  a  zealous  Arian,  was  restrained  in  his  proceed- 
ings against  the  other  parties  only  by  the  circumstances 
of  the  times,  and  the  steadfastness  of  the  orthodox 
bishops. 

The  Semiarians   separate  themselves  more  and  more 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.        77 

widely  from  the  Arians,  and  unite  more  closely  with  the 
adherents  of  the  Nicene  Creed  against  the  common  enemy. 
The  spread  of  the  Nicene  doctrine  greatly  promoted  by 
Basil,  Bishop  of  Neocaesarea;  his  brother  Gregory,  of 
Nyssa ;  and  Gregory  Nazianzen. 


Jovian,  Emperor. 

Jovian  favours  the  Catholic  doctrine ;  restores  the  pri- 
vileges and  immunities  of  the  Church  ;  recals  the  exiled 
bishops ;  no  persecution,  either  of  Pagans  or  Christian 
sects.  Toleration  and  conciliatory  measures  towards  all. 
Athanasius  possesses  great  influence  with  Jovian  (in  a 
letter  to  whom  he  praises  the  orthodoxy  of  the  British 
churches). 

Jerome  at  Rome. 


Valentinian  I.  Emp.  West. 
Valens,  Emp.  East. 
Valentinian  favours  the  Catholics ;  Valens,  the  Arians. 
The  latter  opposes  alike  Homoousians  and  Homceousians, 
takes  away  their  churches,   and  banishes   their  bishops, 
including  Meletius  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa. 

Valentinian  tolerant  and  moderate.  He  protects  the 
heathen  temples.  Freedom  of  religious  worship  and 
opinion. 

Western  Church  tranquil  and  flourishing. 

In  the  East,  Valens  still  persecutes  the  Orthodox ;  pro- 
bably at  the  instigation  of  Eudoxius  (Arian)  Bishop  of 
Constantinople.  Basil  the  Great  and  Gregory  Nazianzen 
zealously  oppose  the  measures  of  Valens  with  some  success. 


The  Council  of  Gangra,  in  Paphlagonia,  held  probably 
about  this  time,  attempts  to  set  bounds  to  the  passion  for 
Monachism.  It  recognised  Monachism  as  a  Christian 
institution ;  but  it  also  recognised  Matrimony  as  a  holy 
state,  and  assumed  the  possibility  of  leading  a  Christian 
life  in  possession  of  temporal  goods.   It  condemned  all  who 


78  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

should  embrace  the  monastic  profession  out  of  aversion 
from  matrimony  or  the  business  of  life,  and  all  who 
should  refuse  to  attend  divine  offices  celebrated  by  a 
married  priest. 

366  Sanguinary  contests  between  the  parties  of  Ursicinus 
and  Damasus,  after  the  death  of  Liberius,  Bishop  of 
Rome.     Damasus  elected  bishop. 

367  Epiphanius,  Bishop  of  Constantia  or  Salamis  in  Cyprus. 


Valentinian  sets  limits  to  the  law  by  which  Constantine 
had  empowered  the  Church  to  receive  testamentary 
bequests. 

Athanasius  obliged  to  protect  himself  by  flight;  but  he 
remained  in  retirement  only  a  few  months,  in  consequence 
of  the  earnest  demands  of  his  people.  He  spent  the  rest 
of  his  days  in  peace  (died  373). 


368  Heathen  superstition  is  now  generally  renounced  by  the 

educated  classes  of  society. 

In  an  edict  of  this  year,  the  adherents  of  the  ancient 
superstition  are  styled,  for  the  first  time,  Pagani. 


Valens  publishes  an  edict,  ordering  that  all  persons 
who  had  embraced  the  monastic  life  out  of  idleness,  or  in 
order  to  avoid  the  discharge  of  civil  duties,  should  be 
forcibly  withdrawn  from  their  retirement. 


f  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Poitiers.  He  contributed  greatly 
to  the  establishment  of  Nicene  doctrines  in  Gaul  and 
Italy.  

Aerius,  presbyter  under  Eustathius,  Bishop  of  Sebaste 
in  Armenia,  becomes  the  leader  of  a  small  party.  He 
opposed  especially  the  pre-eminence  of  bishops,  and  the 
practices  of  fasting  and  prayer  for  the  dead.  He  even 
held  that  the  distinction  between  bishops  and  presbyters, 
such  as  prevailed  in  his  time,  is  unlawful. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  79 

.S70  Basil  made  Bishop  of  Coesarea  in  Cappadocia.     About 

the  same  time,   Chrysostom  appointed  Reader  at  Con- 
stantinople. 

First  mention  of  "  Cantores,"  singers  or  precentors,  in 
public  worship. 

Clerical  Education. 
The  bishops  and  clergy  privately  trained  many  young 
men  (readers  and  others)  for  the  clerical  office.  Others 
received  education  at  the  theological  schools ;  and  others 
in  the  schools  of  general  literature,  e.  g.  Alexandria  and 
Athens.  By  many  it  was  erroneously  supposed,  that  any 
special  education  or  preparation  for  the  work  of  the  mi- 
nistry was  needless.  Chrysostom,  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
and  Augustin,  inveighed  against  the  last  mentioned  (very 
prevalent)  opinion,  and  the  consequent  practice. 


Lucifer,  Bishop  of  Cagliari,  head  of  a  small  and  short- 
lived sect, — Lucifer  ians. 

Companies  of  itinerant  monks  in  Mesopotamia,  called 
£vQov<riu<7Tal  and  sv^ha.1,  Chald.   j^^ft,  hence  Messalians. 

They  renounced  all  kinds   of  labour,   and  professed  to 
occupy  themselves  continually  in  prayer. 

Divine  worship  was  now  conducted  with  more  pomp 
and  splendour  than  formerly,  but  its  parts  and  substance 
remained  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  last  century.  It  con- 
sisted in  psalmody,  prayer,  reading  of  the  Scriptures, 
preaching,  and  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper. 
Until  the  practice  of  infant  baptism  became  general,  it 
was  divided  into  two  parts,  —  the  one,  didactic  (reading 
of  the  Scripture  and  preaching),  in  which  the  catechumens 
were  allowed  to  share  (Missa  Catechumenorum) ;  the  other, 
containing  the  type  and  bond  of  spiritual  communion, 
namely,  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper,  with  its 
accompanying  prayers  (Missa  Fidelium). 

During  this  century,  the  religious  use  of  pictures  and 
images  was  discountenanced.     Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  at 


&0  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

the  beginning  of  the  century,  and  Epiphanius  of  Salamis, 
towards  the  close  of  it,  denounced  the  practice  as  hea- 
thenish and  unscriptural. 

The  veneration  of  martyrs  and  saints,  and  the  superstitious 
use  of  relics,  had  now  greatly  increased. 

Lighted  tapers  in  churches,  8fc. 
Incense. 


Ulphilas  propagates  (Arian)  Christianity  among  the 
Visigoths,  and  becomes  their  bishop.  He  constructs  an 
alphabet  for  them,  and  translates  the  greater  part  of  the 
Scriptures  into  their  language. 

QjQ  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Bishop  of  Sasima.      Gregory,  bro- 

ther of  Basil,  Bishop  of  Nyssa. 


Edict  against  the  Manichees.  Persecution  of  this  sect, 
continued  for  some  time,  excites  their  enthusiasm,  but 
fails  to  root  out  their  doctrine. 

PrisciUian  ists. 
Gnostico-Manichean  doctrines  had  spread  (probably 
from  Africa)  into  Spain  ;  where  PrisciUian  constructed  a 
system  compounded  of  the  doctrines  of  Emanation,  Dual- 
ism, and  Astrology.  Two  bishops,  Instantius  and  Salvian, 
among  his  followers.  Severe  measures  against  them  on 
part  of  the  Catholics  (especially  Hyginus,  Bishop  of  Cor- 
duba,  and  Idacius  of  Emerita)  tend  to  increase  their  zeal. 

The  Orthodox  greatly  oppressed  in  Egypt  by  Arian 
influence. 

373  Lucius,  an  Arian,  and  opponent  of  Athanasius,  forcibly 
made  bishop  of  Alexandria.  Orthodox  clergy,  who  sup- 
ported an  election,  banished. 

J  Athanasius. 

374  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  —  after  the  death  of  Auxentius, 
who  was  the  only  considerable  opponent  of  the  Nicene 
doctrine  belonging  to  the  Western  Church.  Ambrose  was 
a  powerful  defender  of  the  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of 
Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit.  Philastrius,  Bishop  of 
Brescia,  who  died  in  390,  wrote  also  on  the  same  side. 


Period.)         to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  81 

dT(5  Valentinian  and  Gratian,  Emp.  West. 

Gratian  zealously  supports  the  orthodox  faith  ;  but 
tolerates  the  Arians. — Eunomians,  Photinians,  Manichees, 
and  Donatists,  forbidden  to  hold  religious  assemblies. 

Under  Valens,  the  Arians  persecute  the  Orthodox. 

Gratian  was  the  first  Christian  emperor  who  renounced 
the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus. 


Jerome  embraces  the  monastic  life,  and  begins  his  ex- 
position of  Scripture. 

Epiphanius  writes. 
Didymus  of  Alexandria  writes  against  the  Macedonians. 
Martin,  Bishop  of  Tours. 
f  Ulphilas,  Bishop  of  the  Goths. 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  banished. 
Gregory  Nazianzen  labours  in  defence  of  the  Nicene 
doctrine  at  Constantinople. 

Theodorus,  Bishop  of  Tarsus,  a  learned  expositor  of 
Scripture. 

Ruffin,  Presbyter  of  Aquileia5  betakes  himself  to  an  as- 
cetic life  on  the  Mount  of  Olives. 

Jerome  ordained  presbyter,  at  Antioch,  about  this  time. 
J  Ephraim  the  Syrian,  deacon  at  Edessa. 
"("  Basil  (the  Great)  of  Ccesarea. 


After  the  death  of  Valens  (378)  Gratian  favours  the 
Orthodox,  and  recals  the  exiled  bishops.  (Gregory  of 
Nyssa  restored.) 

Union  of  Natures  in  Christ. 

Apollinaris  the  Younger,  at  the  head  of  a  party  main- 
taining that,  in  Christ,  the  divine  Logos,  or  mind,  was  in 
the  place  of  a  rational  human  soul.  The  Arians  also  held 
that  the  divine  Logos  had  united  itself  to  a  human  body 
only. 

N.B.  From  this  time  two  different  systems  prevailed 
in  the  Orthodox  Church,  concerning  the  union  of  the  divine 
and  human  natures  in  Christ.  —  1.  The  Alexandrian 
Church,  anxious  to  give  prominence  to  the  real  and  inti- 

G 


82  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL        (SeCOTld 

mate  union  of  the  two  natures,  was  accustomed  to  predi- 
cate the  same  things  equally  of  both  (e.  g.  the  Logos  was 
crucified ;  Mother  of  God).  —  2.  The  Church  of  Antioch, 
on  the  other  hand,  carefully  distinguished  the  natures,  and 
avoided  predicating  the  same  things  of  both.  Hence  the 
latter  charged  the  former  with  erroneously  confounding 
the  two  natures ;  while  the  Church  of  Alexandria  up- 
braided that  of  Antioch  with  incurring  the  risk  of  sepa- 
rating the  deity  and  humanity  of  Christ  into  two  persons, 
and  of  denying  the  true  deity  united  with  the  manhood. 
A  third  system,  between  these  two,  was  eventually  esta- 
blished, and  generally  received  as  orthodox. 

Origenist  Controversy. 
The  great  writers  of  the  fourth  century  were  largely 
indebted  to  the  study  of  Origen.  Others,  especially  the 
monks,  were  divided  into  two  classes;  on  the  one  side, 
those  who  favoured  Anthropomorphite  representations  of 
God  and  divine  things  ;  and,  on  the  other  side,  the  friends 
of  spiritual  mysticism  and  advocates  of  Origen.  Among 
the  former,  a  leading  man  was  Epiphanius ;  among  the 
latter,  Jerome,  and  his  friends  Ruffin  and  John,  Bishop  of 
Jerusalem.  Admiration  of  Origen  now  begins  to  be 
unsafe. 

Monachism. 

The  bishops,  especially  Basil,  endeavour  to  correct  the 
abuses  of  Monachism  by  reducing  it  to  a  system,  and 
establishing  regular  societies  of  monks  and  monasteries 
(ccenobia)  in  which  monks  should  be  occupied  in  moderate 
daily  labour,  and  submit  to  the  presidency  of  a  superior 
(abbot,  archimandrite),  implicit  obedience  to  whom 
should  constitute  their  chief  virtue.  It  was  hoped  that 
societies  thus  formed  might  become  useful  for  the  increase 
of  learning  and  piety,  especially  by  educating  the  youth 
and  the  clergy,  and  might  also  produce  good  by  reliev- 
ing men's  temporal  wants  in  poor  and  needy  districts. 
Female  societies  of  this  kind  had  been  already  formed, 
and  convents  established.  Irrevocable  vows  of  chastity  are 


Period,)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  83 

now  exacted.     The  practice  of  taking  the  veil  has  been 
introduced. 

Funeral  ceremonies  multiplied. 

Christian  churches  now  generally  acquire  the  right 
of  asylum,  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  heathen 
temples. 

Christian  morality  suffers  great  detriment  from  the  influ- 
ence of  monks  and  mystics,  and  from  its  contact  with  their 
mistaken  principles  of  piety  and  duty. 
Extravagant  opinions  concerning  the  supposed  merit  of  celibacy. 

Theodosius,  Emp.  East. 
Theodosius  baptized.  Restores  to  the  Catholics  the 
churches  of  Constantinople,  which  the  Arians  had  pos- 
sessed nearly  forty  years.  Proclaims  the  doctrines  held  by 
Damasus,  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  Peter,  Bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, as  the  standard  of  Orthodoxy ;  and  makes  the 
Heterodoxliable  to  civil  punishments.  Demophilus  vacates 
the  high  church  at  Constantinople ;  of  which  Gregory 
Nazianzen  takes  possession. 

Priscillianists. —  Council  of  Saragossa  excommunicates 
Priscillian  and  his  followers.  Gratian  condemns  them  to 
exile.     Priscillian,  however,  procures  continued  toleration. 


First  Council  of  Constantinople  (Second  General)  con- 
vened by  Theodosius.  Eunomians,  Pneumatomachi, 
Sabellians,  Marcellians,  Photinians,  Apollinarists,  con- 
demned. 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  re- 
signs ;  and  is  succeeded  by  Nectarius. 

Gregory  had  failed  in  an  attempt  to  put  an  end  to  the 
Meletian  Schism  at  Antioch. 

The  Bishop  of  Constantinople  declared  to  be  second  in  rank 
only  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome.  He  gradually  becomes  the 
Second  Patriarch. 

Creed  of  Constantinople, 
containing  some  additions   to  that  of  Nicaea,  especially 
concerning  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  against  the 
Macedonians.     Victory  was  now  decided  in  favour  of  the 

g  2 


84  FROM   THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

Nicene  doctrines,  which  had  been  questioned  or  denied 
only  in  some  portions  of  the  Church,  particularly  in  the 
East. 

Decline  and  Fall  of  Arianism. 
From  this  time  the  Arians  existed  as  a  distinct,  but  op- 
pressed, party  in  the  Roman  Empire.  Their  tenets,  how- 
ever, were  propagated  and  maintained  among  various 
tribes  of  Barbarians,  — Vandals,  Goths,  and  Lombards, — 
until  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century. 

Theodosius  intolerant  in  his  zeal  for  Orthodoxy. 


380 


383 


Theodosius  forbids  the  burying  of  corpses  in  towns. 
Choral  singing  introduced  by  Ambrose. 


Chrysostom  ordained  deacon  at  Antioch;  and  soon 
after  writes  his  Treatise  on  the  Priesthood. 

Gregory  of  Nyssa  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople. 

Jerome,  at  Rome,  assists  the  Bishop  JDamasus  in  biblical 
studies  ;  improves  the  old  Latin  translation  of  the  Scriptures  ; 
favours  monastic  institutions. 

Epiphanius,  Jerome,  Ambrose,  and  Siricius,  strenu- 
ously assert  the  perpetual  virginity  of  the  mother  of  our 
Lord,  against  the  Antidicomarianites  of  Arabia,  Hel- 
vidius  of  Rome,  and  Bonosus,  Bishop  of  Sardica. 


Maxim  us,  Usurper,  after  the  death  of  Gratian. 

Arians  favoured  in  the  West  by  the  Empress  Justina, 
mother  of  Valentinian  II.  Ambrose  successfully  exerts 
himself  in  opposition  to  her  influence. 

Difficulties  affecting  the  interests  of  Church  and  State, 
with  reference  to  the  civil  exemptions  of  the  clergy, 
adjusted  by  way  of  compromise.  Clergy  confirmed  in 
their  exemptions  and  immunities  ;  all  persons  eligible  to 
the  clerical  office;  but  those  liable  to  civil  burdens,  on 
account  of  rank  or  property,  required  to  make  provision 
for  the  discharge  of  their  duties  by  others,  before  they 
can  themselves  enter  the  clerical  body. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  85 

Priscillianists.  Council  of  Bordeaux  against  the  Priscil- 
lianists.  Priscillian,  and  two  of  his  adherents,  beheaded  at 
Treves  (385).  Theognistus,  Martin  of  Tours,  and  Siricius 
of  Rome,  protest  against  these  proceedings.  The  sect  of 
the  Priscillianists,  esteeming  evasion  lawful  for  the  propaga- 
tion of  their  opinions,  survives  this  persecution  and  others. 

First  instance  of  the  infliction  of  capital  punishment  upon 
reputed  heretics. 

Didymus  teaches  at  Alexandria, 
t  Hilary,  the  Deacon.     Damasus,  Bishop  of  Rome. 

t  Optatus  of  Milevi. 
Exegetical  theology  begins  to  be  cultivated;  but  with 
great  disadvantage,  arising  from  want  of  legitimate  criti- 
cism, and  fondness  for  allegorical  interpretation. 


Theophilus,  Bishop  of  Alexandria;  he  zealously  op- 
poses the  new  claims  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

Gradual  Extension  of  the  Power  of  the 
Roman  See. 

Siricius  nominates  the  bishop  of  Thessalonica  as  his 
"  Vicar  Apostolical."  * 

N.B.  The  Church  of  Eastern  Ulyria  had  attached 
itself  to  the  See  of  Rome,  in  consequence  of  the  tempo- 
rary prevalence  of  Arianism  in  the  East. 

In  the  course  of  divisions  and  controversies  by  which 
the  Oriental  Churches  were  distracted  during  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries,  the  decisions  of  the  Patriarch  of  Rome, 
who  was  independent  of  the  temporal  power,  and  famed 
for  orthodoxy,  naturally  had  great  weight  with  at  least 
one  of  the  contending  parties.  His  decisions  were  humbly 
sought,  and  authoritatively  given. 


"j"  Cyril,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem. 
Jerome  retires  to  a  monastery  at  Bethlehem. 
Chrysostom  ordained  presbyter  at  Antioch. 
(He  celebrates  the  Festival  of  the  Nativity  on  the  25th 
of  December,  according  to  the  custom  already  established 
in  the  West.) 

g  3 


&6  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

387  Augustin  converted  from  Manicheism,  and  baptized, 
at  the  age  of  thirty  years. 

f  Philastrius,  Bishop  of  Brescia. 

388  Maximus  defeated. 
Valentinian  II.  Emp.  West. 

At  this  time  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Rome 
are  Christians.  The  Roman  Senate  recognises  Christianity 
as  the  religion  of  the  empire. 

Extensive  conversion  of  the  Gauls. 

The  Gospel  introduced  into  various  parts  of  Germany. 

Theodosius  gradually  prohibits  all  heathen  sacrifices 
and  religious  rites  throughout  the  empire. 

During  this  reign  the  ancient  superstitions  generally 
acquire  the  name  of  Paganism.  Advocates  of  Heathenism 
(e.  g.  Themistius,  Symmachus)  now  merely  plead  for  its 
toleration  as  one  system  of  religion  among  many,  on  the 
ground  that  God  is  most  extensively  honoured  by  diver- 
sity of  forms  and  creeds,  naturally  incident  to  so  exalted 
a  subject  in  the  present  condition  of  the  human  mind. 


Siricius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  discourages  the  marriage  of 
the  clergy.  In  his  epistle  (decretal)  to  Himerius,  Bishop 
of  Tarragona  in  Spain,  he  pronounces,  as  Vicar  of  Christ, 
against  such  marriages ;  and  says  that  it  would  be  useful 
and  honourable  to  Himerius  to  make  this  decision  gener- 
ally known,  although  no  priest  ought  to  be  ignorant  of 
the  ordinances  of  the  apostolic  chair. 

Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  pretends  to  discover  certain 
relics  of  saints. 


About  this  time,  Helvidius  at  Rome,  and  Bonosus, 
Bishop  of  Sardica,  but  especially  Jovinian,  a  Roman  monk, 
speak  slightingly  of  the  value  of  celibacy  and  fasting,  and 
protest  against  monastic  abuses.  Jovinian  denied  the 
merit  of  monastic  exercises,  condemned  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy,  and  inveighed  against  ascetic  institutes  and  prin- 
ciples in  general,  as  being  at  variance  with  true  Christian 
doctrine  and  morality.  He  appears  to  have  expressed 
himself  obscurely  and  paradoxically,  or  to  have  been  be- 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         87 

trayed  by  his  zeal  into  excessive  statements.  He  was 
severely  attacked  by  Jerome,  and  was  excommunicated 
by  Siricius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  Ambrose,  Bishop  of 
Milan. 

Theodosius  compels  the  Christians  to  restore  a  certain 
synagogue  which  they  had  destroyed.  Ambrose  compels 
him  to  retract  his  order. 


J  Gregory  Nazianzen. 
(He  was  a  zealous  and  powerful  defender  of  the  Nicene 
Confession.) 

After  an  insurrection  at  Thessalonica,  Theodosius 
causes  seven  thousand  men,  the  innocent  with  the  guilty, 
to  be  put  to  death.  For  this  crime,  Ambrose  imposes 
penance  upon  the  emperor,  and  excludes  him  from  church 
communion  during  eight  months. 


Nectarius  puts  an  end  to  the  office  of  Presbyter  Peni- 
tentiarius  at  Constantinople. 


The  Church  now  possessed  lands  and  other  property  to 
a  considerable  amount.  This  operated  as  one  cause  of 
declension  in  the  morals  of  the  clergy.  It  was  protested 
against  by  some  ecclesiastical  writers  of  this  age. 


j"  Macarius  the  elder. 
Many  bishops  and  doctors  of  the  Western  Church  advo- 
cate the  cause  of  Monachism.  At  this  period,  Ambrose 
of  Milan  and  Jerome  of  Rome  are  particularly  zealous 
in  its  favour.  In  Gaul,  Martin  of  Tours  is  its  warm 
advocate. 

Augustin  writes  against  the  Donatists,  who  decline  en- 
gaging in  a  formal  disputation  with  him. 

Gnostics  and  Manichees  continue  to  exist  (sometimes  as 
separate  sects,  and  sometimes  united)  in  the  East,  espe- 
cially in  Syria.     Manicheism  especially  in  North  Africa. 


Augustin  ordained  presbyter  at  Hippo  Regius. 
G  4 


88  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

Augustin,  as  a  presbyter,  frequently  called  upon  to 
preach  in  the  presence  of  his  bishop ;  contrary  to  the 
practice  which  had  hitherto  prevailed  in  Africa. 


39%  Valentinian  II.  killed.     Eugenius,  Usurper. 

Eugenius  favours  Heathen  Superstition. 
394"  Eugenius  killed. 

Theodosius  the  Great,  sole  Emperor. 

Theodosius  completed  the  overthrow  of  Heathenism. 

Christianity  almost  universal  in  the  empire. 


Jerome  composes  his  Catalogue  of  Ecclesiastical  Writers. 

Heliodorus  and  Nonnus,  Christian  poets,  fl. 

Cento  Virgilianus  of  Proba  Falconia. 

Claudian,  a  Christian  poet,  fl. 

j"  Amphilochius  of  Iconium. 

395  t  Gregory  of  Nyssa.     Diodorus  of  Tarsus. 

Arcajdius,  Emp.  East  (with  Rufinus). 
Honorius,  Emp.  West  (with  Stilico). 
Arcadius  and  Honorius  zealously  support  the  Ortho- 
dox. 

T  Macarius  the  Younger. 

Cassian  visits  the  monks  and  hermits  in  the  Thebaid 
and  other  places. 

Origenist  Controversy. 

Epiphanius  goes  to  Jerusalem  and  demands  a  condem- 
nation of  the  opinions  of  Origen.  Jerome  is  alarmed. 
Vehement  controversy  between  John  of  Jerusalem  and 
Ruffin  on  the  one  part,  and  Jerome  and  Epiphanius  on 
the  other;  composed,  in  397,  by  the  mediation  of  Theo- 
philus,  Bishop  of  Alexandria.  Ruffin,  returned  to  Aqui- 
leia,  translates  into  Latin  the  Books  of  Origen,  weo)  Sip^cov, 
with  omissions.  Violent  controversy  between  Jerome 
and  Ruffin.     This  controversy  produced  little  effect. 

Many  Origenists  and  Anthropomorphites  among  the 
monks  in  Egypt.     Disputes  between  them. 

About  this  time,  Augustin  becomes  Bishop  of  Hippo. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  89 

396  *  Didymus  of  Alexandria. 

T  Libanius,  an  opponent  of  Christianity. 
T  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan. 


The  Ostrogoths  gradually  receive  (Arian)  Christianity 
from  the  Visigoths. 

#  Culdees  on  the  coasts  of  Ireland  and  Scotland. 


Third  Council  of  Carthage.     Canon  of  Scripture. 
Chysostom,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
Edict  of  Arcadius  against  the  ecclesiastical  right  of 
asylum  ;  without  any  permanent  effect. 


Origenist  Controversy. 
Theophilus,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  openly  combats 
the  opinions  of  the  Anthropomorphite  monks,  whom  he 
pacifies  with  difficulty.  Afterwards,  partly  from  fear, 
partly  from  personal  hatred  against  certain  individuals  of 
the  Origenist  party,  he  sides  with  the  Anthropomorphites 
against  the  Origenists ;  and  unites  with  Epiphanius  and 
Jerome  in  endeavouring  to  procure  a  condemnation  of 
the  opinions  of  Origen.  Hence  the  Councils  of  Alexan- 
dria, 399  and  400,  condemn  the  doctrines  and  writings  of 
Origen.     Theophilus  persecutes  the  Origenist  monks. 


Prudentius,  a  Christian  poet;  Nemesius,  a  Christian 
philosopher,  fl. 

Councils  during  this  century, 
1 .  Were  partly  general,  partly  provincial ;  2.  Frequently 
convened  by  the  emperors ;  3.  Held  under  the  presi- 
dency of  emperors  or  their  representatives,  or  of  the 
bishop  of  the  city  or  province  in  which  they  met ; 
4.  Sometimes  received  and  decided  complaints  against 
bishops  ;  5.  Their  decrees  were  ratified  by  emperors. 


Rites,  Institutions?  fyc. 
Agapce,  or  Feasts  of  Charity,  had  now  fallen  into  disuse. 
Superstitious   veneration    of   martyrs    and    their    relics, 
credulous  reliance  upon  their  reputed  powers  of  interces- 


90  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 


THE 
FOURTH 
CEN- 
TURY 


end  of  sion,  reports  of  miracles  and  visions  at  their  tombs,  and 
other  follies  of  this  kind,  form  a  prominent  feature  in  the 
religion  of  the  age. 

Tithes  (voluntary  and  partial)  were  paid  before  the 
close  of  this  century.  When  demanded  as  due,  there  ap- 
pears to  have  been  great  difficulty  in  collecting  them,  at 
least  in  many  places,  for  some  time  henceforth. 

New  Festivals  during  this  century.  Christmas-day, 
Ascension-day,  Whitsunday   (in  the  modern  sense). 

Baptismal  Rites,  Ceremonies,  fyc.  —  1.  Wax  tapers  in 
the  hands  of  the  candidates ;  2.  Use  of  salt,  milk,  wine, 
and  honey  ;  3.  Baptisteries ;  4.  Easter  and  Whitsuntide, 
times  of  baptism ;  5.  Twofold  anointing,  before  and  after 
baptism  ;  6.  Dominica  in  Albis. 

The  Lord' s  Supper,  1.  was  now  commonly  called  Missa 
by  the  Latins ;  2.  Tables  had  come  into  use,  and  were 
now  called  altars;  3.  Liturgies  used  at  the  celebration  of 
the  rite ;  4.  Elements  still  administered  in  both  kinds  as 
before;  5.  No  private  masses. 


400  Irruption  of  the  Visigoths  into  Italy,  under  Alaric. 


f  Martin,  Bishop  of  Tours. 


During  the  debate  and  contests  which  agitate  the 
church,  certain  metropolitans  acquire  preponderating  in- 
fluence and  power.     Hence  the 

Rapid  Progress  of   Church  Oligarchy,  and  Form- 
ation of  the  Patriarchate. 

Among  the  clergy,  Archdeacons  are  now  next  in  in- 
fluence to  bishops. 

Presbyters  are  appointed  by  the  bishops  ,•  the  bishops 
elected  (except  when  imperial  influence  interfered)  by 
the  other  bishops  of  the  provinces,  but  with  the  concur- 
rence of  the  churches ;  which,  in  the  West,  often  elected 
without  the  concurrence  of  the  other  bishops. 

End  of  the  Meletian  Schism;  Flavian,  at  first  the  Me- 
letian  bishop,  being  recognised  as  bishop  by  all  parties. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         91 

In  Africa,  Faustus  revives  Manichean  doctrines  for  a 
little  while.     Augustin  writes  against  him. 


Christians  again  tolerated  in  Persia,  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Maruthas,  a  Mesopotamian  bishop,  who  had 
acquired  the  confidence  of  the  king. 


Priscillianists  unite  with  other  Spanish  bishops. 


Origenist  Controversy.  —  The  Origenist  monks,  per- 
secuted by  Theophilus  in  Egypt,  take  refuge  in  Palestine 
and  other  countries.  ^Theophilus  pursues  them  even  to 
Constantinople,  where  Chrysostom  is  disposed  to  afford 
them  protection,  and  endeavours,  by  his  mediation,  to 
effect  a  reconciliation. 

The  controversy  now  assumes  the  form  of  a  sharp 
personal  dispute  between  Chrysostom  and  Theophilus ; 
the  latter,  as  bishop  of  Antioch,  having  long  been  jealous 
of  the  power  of  the  bishop  of  Constantinople.  Theo- 
philus summoned  to  Constantinople  to  answer  for  his 
conduct. 

Epiphanius,  at  Constantinople,  contends  vehemently 
against  Chrysostom  and  the  Origenists. 

Theophilus,  having  gained  the  Empress  Eudoxia 
over  to  his  side,  presides  in  a  council  at  Chalcedon  (ad 
Quercum),  before  which  charges  are  preferred  against 
Chrysostom.  Chrysostom  deposed,  excommunicated,  and 
banished  to  Bithynia ;  but  hastily  recalled  the  same  year, 
when  he  entered  Constantinople  in  triumph,  Theophilus 
obliged  to  retire. 

j"  Epiphanius. 

Machinations  of  Theophilus  against  Chrysostom.  Eu- 
doxia again  offended,  and  Chrysostom  banished  to 
Caucasus,  on  the  borders  of  Armenia  and  Cilicia.  In  his 
place  of  exile  he  labours  assiduously  for  the  benefit  of  his 
church. 

*  Paula,  at  Bethlehem. 


Abolition  of  Gladiatorial  Shows. 


92  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (SeCO?ld 

Pelagius,   at  Rome,  writes  Expositions  of  the  Pauline 
Epistles,  and  instructs  Ccelestius  in  his  opinions. 


Vigilantius  complains  of  the  respect  lately  begun  to  be 
paid  to  martyrs  and  their  relics ;  of  the  nocturnal  cele- 
bration of  divine  worship  ;  of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy ; 
and  of  Monachism. 

Jerome  writes  against  Vigilantius,  and  declares  that  he 
ought  to  be  put  to  death  as  a  heretic. 


Sulpicius  Severus  writes  a  Jewish  and  Christian  Church 
History. 

405  Severe   laws   against  the   Donatists ;    punishing  their 

laity  with  confiscation  of  property,  and  their  bishops 
with  exile.  Augustin  is  at  first  opposed  to  such  measures, 
but  afterwards  he  defends  the  use  of  violence  in  order  to 
bring  men  over,  for  their  own  good,  to  the  Church,  in 
which  salvation  may  be  obtained.  Early  apology  for 
ecclesiastical  usurpation  and  tyranny. 


Importance  of  the  patriarch  of  Rome  increased  by  the 
removal  of  the  seat  of  civil  government  from  Rome  to 
Ravenna,  under  Honor ius. 


407          Irruption    of  the    Vandals,    Sueves,    and   Alans,  into 
Gaul.  

Chrysostom  ordered  to  a  more  severe  place  of  exile  on 
the  Black  Sea.  He  died  in  course  of  his  removal,  near 
Comana  in  Pontus. 

N.B.  The  persecution  of  Chrysostom  gave  rise  to  a 
difference  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches, 
which  continued  until  due  respect  was  paid  to  his  memory 
under  Theodosius  II.  in  438. 


Christianity  having  been  made  the  Religion  of  the 
State,  and  many  persons  having  been  induced  to  profess 
the  Gospel,  who  were  secretly  attached  to  their  aneieut 
superstition,    occasion  was    hence    given    to    the   intro- 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         93 

duction  of  many  human  inventions  and  superstitious 
practices  into  the  Church,  for  the  purpose  of  meeting 
the  depraved  taste  of  these  nominal  converts  to  the  Faith. 
These  practices  exerted  an  influence  upon  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church. 

Palladius  fl. 


In  Africa,  Augustin  patronises  Monachism,  endeavouring 
to  make  the  institution  as  useful  as  possible. 

Ccelicolae. 

The  divine  right  of  Tithes  was  zealously  asserted  by 
some  Fathers  about  this  time. 


Origenist  Controversies 
were  lost  in  the  struggle  against  Chrysostom;   they  were 
not  revived  until  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century. 

Advance  towards  the  doctrine  of  Purgatory. 
Augustin  thinks  it  probable  that  the  purgation  of  souls 
by  fire,  which  Origen  had  taught,  may  take  place  in  the 
interval  between  death  and  the  day  of  judgment,  instead 
of  being  deferred  until  the  latter  period. 


Theodosius  II.  (about  eight  years  old)  Emp.  East. 

Honorius  continues  to  reign  in  the  West.     He  causes 
Stilico  to  be  put  to  death. 

(The  education  of  Theodosius  was  conducted  under  the 
influence  of  eunuchs  and  monks;  hence,  probably,  he  ac- 
quired an  ascetic  kind  of  piety,  and  that  blind  veneration 
of  the  clergy  by  which  he  was  afterwards  distinguished. 
His  sister,  Pulcheria,  also  had  great  influence  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  affairs  throughout  the  reign.) 
Alaric  plunders  Rome. 

The  Vandals,  Sueves,  and  Alans,  pass  the  Pyrenees,  and 
establish  themselves  in  Spain. 


Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Nola,  a  Christian  poet. 


94  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

410  Synesius,  Bishop  of  Ptolemais.     He  denied  the  doctrine 

of  the  Resurrection. 

f  Buffin.     "f*  Nonnus,  a  Christian  poet. 


*  The  Roman  Legions  withdrawn  from  Britain. 


Pelagians. 
Pelagius  propagates  his  opinions  at  Rome. 
Hitherto  it  had  been  the  constant  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
that  man,  as  he  is  now  born  into  the  world,  is  not  in  his 
originally  perfect  and  upright  moral  condition ;  that,  ac- 
cordingly, no  mere  development  or  cultivation  of  his  own 
faculties  is  sufficient  to  enable  him  rightly  to  fulfil  the  end 
of  his  existence,  or  to  attain  to  the  state  and  happiness  for 
which  he  was  designed;  but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  human 
nature,  in  its  present  corrupt  state,  having  lost  its  original 
affinity  or  likeness  to  God,  and  being  disturbed  by  an  un- 
godly principle  of  selfishness,  man  stands  in  need  of  an 
inward  change  by  the  almighty  power  of  God,  in  order  to 
be  able  to  live  according  to  his  original  nature,  and  to  do 
good,  with  real  holiness  of  heart.  During  the  first  four 
centuries  this  was,  in  general,  the  doctrine  of  all  divines  ;  but 
there  were  certain  special  points  on  which  they  were  not  en- 
tirely agreed  ;  and  they  differed  particularly  in  attempting 
to  define  the  relation  of  the  remaining  moral  faculties  of  man 
to  the  divine  power.  This  difference  subsisted  chiefly  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches,  and  also  between 
certain  portions  of  the  latter.  The  chief  writers  of  the 
West,  especially  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, Hilary  of  Poitiers,  and,  more  particularly,  Ambrose, 
in  the  fourth,  gave  prominence  to  the  doctrine  of  man's 
corruption,  and  the  necessity  of  a  change  or  conversion  of 
his  nature  by  divine  grace ;  but  the  Alexandrian  teachers, 
on  the  other  hand,  especially  Clement,  and  other  Orientals, 
e.  g.  Chrysostom,  placed  in  the  foreground  the  doctrine  of 
the  power  of  man's  remaining  free  will,  as  working  before 
and  together  with  divine  grace.  In  the  fifth  century,  these 
two  systems  were  brought  out  in  their  full  difference,  and 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         95 

openly  arrayed  against  each  other ;  the  latter  especially 
being  pushed  to  such  an  extreme  as  actually  to  oppose  the 
earlier  doctrine  of  the  Church.  This  took  place  in  the 
course  of  the  controversy  between  Augustin  and  Pelagius, 


Conference  at  Carthage  between  Catholics  and  Donatists, 
under  the  presidency  of  Marcellinus,  imperial  commis- 
sioner. Bishops  present,  286  Catholic,  279  Donatist. 
The  chief  points  of  debate  were,  whether  Felix  of  Ap- 
tunga,  who  had  ordained  Caecilian,  was  a  traditor  or  no ; 
and  whether  a  church  loses  its  character  as  such  by  holding 
communion  with  unworthy  members  ?  Each  party  ad- 
hered to  its  former  positions:  the  president  decided 
against  the  Donatists. 

Severe  laws  framed  against  the  Donatists  tended  hence- 
forth to  diminish  their  numbers.  But  some  remains  of  the 
party  existed  until  the  end  of  the  next  century. 


John  Cassian,  author  of  "  Monastic  Conferences  and 
Institutions"  (Collationes,  Institutiones) ,  founds  two  mo- 
nasteries at  Marseilles. 


Pelagians. 

(411.)  Pelagius  and  his  friend  Ccelestius  go  to  Carthage. 
Pelagius,  afterwards,  to  Palestine.  In  412,  Ccelestius  was 
summoned  before  a  council  at  Carthage,  to  answer  a 
charge  of  heterodoxy  brought  against  him  by  Paulinus. 
The  council  discussed  two  propositions  of  Ccelestius:  1. 
That  the  sin  of  Adam  had  affected  only  himself,  not  the 
whole  human  race.  2.  That  children  are  born  into  the 
world  in  the  same  condition  as  that  in  which  Adam  was 
before  the  fall ;  also  the  question,  whether  human  nature 
is  corrupt  since  the  fall  or  not  ?  Ccelestius  refused  to 
retract  his  opinions,  and  was  excommunicated. 


(Babylonian  Talmud  compiled.) 


Irruption  of  the  Visigoths  into  Gaul. 


96  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

Rufus,  Bishop  of  Thessalonica,  vicar  (apostolical)  of  the 
patriarch  of  Rome. 
412  t  Theophilus  of  Alexandria. 

Augustin  begins  his  treatise  De  Civitate  Dei. 
Jerome  writes  against  the  Pelagians. 


414  Irruption  of  the  Burgundians  into  Gaul. 

Persecution  of  Christians  in  Persia,  in  consequence  of 
the  imprudent  zeal  of  Abdas,  Bishop  of  Suza,  who  demo- 
lished a  heathen  temple,  and  refused  to  rebuild  it. 


415  Visigoths  in  Spain  take  Barcelona. 

Theodosius  issues  an  edict  against  Gamaliel,  Patriarch 
of  the  Jews,  who  was  active  and  powerful  in  his  opposition 
to  the  Christians. 

Cyril  expels  the  Jews  from  Alexandria. 

Relics  of  St.  Stephen  and  other  saints,  said  to  be  dis- 
covered and  translated. 

The  Vandals,  Sueves,  Visigoths,  and  Burgundians,  after 
their  irruptions  into  Gauland  Italy,  become  (Arian)  Christ- 
ians. Perhaps  the  Burgundians  had  been  converted  be- 
fore they  left  the  banks  of  the  Rhine. 


Pelagians. 

(415.)  Pelagius  accused  by  Paul  Orosius,  a  Spanish  pres- 
byter, before  a  council  at  Jerusalem,  and  by  two  Gallic 
bishops,  Heros  and  Lazarus,  before  another  council  at 
Diospolis;  but  acquitted.  His  doctrine  was  more  in  accord- 
ance with  that  of  the  Oriental  Churches  than  with  the  tenets 
of  the  West;  and  his  explanations  were  deemed  satisfactory. 

Augustin  maintains  the  doctrines  of  the  total  corruption 
of  human  nature,  original  sin,  irresistible  grace,  and  the 
absolute  decrees  of  election,  against  Pelagius.  His  system 
finds  general  acceptance  in  the  West.  Innocent  I.  favoured 
it.  Zosimus  at  first  (417)  inclined  to  Pelagius,  but  was 
afterwards  (418)  induced  to  join  in  condemning  him. 


416  Innocent  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome,  requires  all  Western  Churches 

to  conform  to  the  customs  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  97 

Council  at  Carthage,  against  Pelagius  :  appeals  for  aid 
to  Innocent  of  Rome.     Innocent  opposed  to  Pelagius. 

Pelagius  and  Ccelestius  repair  to  Rome.  Zosimus,  the 
new  patriarch,  satisfied  with  their  explanations  and  state- 
ments. 

|  John,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem. 

Council  at  Carthage  condemns  Pelagianism.  The 
Emperor  Honorius  publishes  a  Sacrum  Rescriptum  against 
Pelagius.  Zosimus  assents  to  the  decree  of  the  council. 
Eighteen  Pelagian  bishops  in  Italy  deposed. 


Paul  Orosius  publishes  a  Roman  History  as  an  apology 
for  the  Christian  religion  against  the  objections  of  the 
Heathen. 

The  African  bishops  refuse  to  acknowledge  the  appellate 
jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch  of  Rome. 

At  Rome  there  are  now  twenty-six  churches,  and  more 
than  seventy  presbyters. 

In  the  West,  Augustin  and  his  system  triumph  in  oppo- 
sition to  Pelagian  tenets.  Julian,  a  Pelagian  bishop, 
writes  against  Augustin. 


f  Jerome, 


Age  of 
Controversy,  pompous  Ceremonial, 
rising  secular  power,  and  growing  corruption, 
of  the  Church. 


Persecution  rages  in  Persia  under  Baranes  V. 


Augustin  actively  engaged  in  controversy  against  the 
Pelagians  and  Donatists.  He  speaks  of  the  purification 
of  the  soul  by  fire  after  death  as  not  improbable. 

Ccelestinus,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  zealously  opposed  the 
Pelagians. 

Marius  Mercator  writes  against  them. 


98  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 


im 


425 


Valentinian  III.  Emp.  West. 
Theodosius  is  still  Emperor  of  the  East. 


About  this  time  all  mention  of  Jewish  patriarchs  is 
lost  in  history. 

Simeon  Stylites  attracts  attention  in  Syria. 
Edict  of  Valentinian  against  the  Pelagians. 

In  the  East  only  a  few  Heathen  temples  remain;  the  Heathen 
excluded  from  offices  and  posts  of  honour.  Valentinian  III. 
makes  it  a  capital  offence  to  go  over  from  Christianity  to 
Heathenism,  or  to  assist  at  Heathen  sacrifices. 

The  revenues  of  the  Church  have  now  become  very  large ; 
having  been  continually  augmented  by  testamentary  be- 
quests and  voluntary  contributions.  The  celibacy  of  the 
clergy  also  tended  to  the  same  result. 

Rise  of  the  Semipelagians. 
A  party  of  theologians  in  southern  Gaul,  with  John 
Cassian  of  Marseilles  (a  pupil  of  Chrysostom)  at  their 
head,  assert  the  necessity  of  the  cooperation  of  divine 
grace  and  the  human  will,  maintain  that  God  works 
differently  in  different  men,  and  reject  the  doctrine  of 
predestination  as  a  vain  speculation  of  mischievous  ten- 
dency. They  were  called  at  first  Massilians ;  afterwards, 
by  scholastic  writers,  Semipelagians. 


At  this  date  the  History  of  Philostorgius  ends. 


426  Augustin  writes  his  Retractationes.  —  His  great  work, 

De  Civitate  Dei,  published. 


Christians  again  tolerated  in  Persia. 


Some  monks  of  Adrumetum  deduce  from  Augustin's 
doctrine  of  absolute  predestination  the  inutility  of  moral 
endeavours,  and  the  injustice  of  punishment  for  sin. 
Augustin  answers  them  in  his  books,  De  Gratia  et  Libero 
Arbitrio,  De  Correptione  et  Gratia. 

428  Nestorius,  a  monk  and  presbyter  of  Antioch,   made 

patriarch  of  Constantinople. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  99 

Nestorian  Controversy. 

The  term  Ssqtoxos  begins  now  to  be  generally  applied 
to  the  Virgin  Mary ;  Nestorius  objects  to  its  use.  Cyril 
of  Alexandria  takes  part  against  Nestorius.  Rise  of  a 
controversy  concerning  the  relation  and  union  of  the 
divine  and  human  natures  in  Christ.  Nestorius  suspected 
of  Photinianism  and  Samosatenism. 

Augustin  defends  his  system  against  the  Semipelagians 
in  two  treatises  concerning  Predestination  and  Final 
Perseverance. 

|  Theodore,  Bishop  of  Mopsuestia. 


The  Vandals  pass  over  into  Africa. 


Theodosius  the  Younger  issues  an  edict  imposing  civil 
disabilities  on  the  Jews,  and  prohibiting  the  erection  of 
any  new  synagogues. 


Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries. 
At  this  date  the  History  of  Theodoret  ends. 
Prosper   of  Aquitain   publishes   a   poem   against  the 
Semipelagians. 

t  Augustin. 
t  Synesius,  Bishop  of  Ptolemais. 


The    Franks    pass  the    Rhine,    and   occupy   part   of 
Belgic  Gaul.     Foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  France. 


Council  of  Rome,  against  Nestorius,  in  which  he  is  de- 
clared a  heretic,  and  deserving  deposition.  Ccelestinus 
refers  the  matter  to  the  decision  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
as  vicar  of  the  Roman  see.  Cyril  summons  Nestorius  to 
Alexandria,  where  he  convenes  a  council,  which  proposes 
twelve  propositions  to  be  anathematized  by  Nestorius. 
Nestorius  in  return  requires  Cyril  to  anathematize  twelve 
counter-propositions,  and  charges  him  with  Apollinarian- 
ism. 

Council  of  Ephesus  (Third  General), 
convened  by   Theodosius    at   the    request  of  Nestorius. 

h  2 


100  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

Unfair  proceedings  of  Cyril  and  his  party.  Nestorius 
condemned.  Qsotoxos  established  as  the  title  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  Errors  of  Ccelestius,  the  friend  of  Pelagius,  de- 
nounced. Syrian  and  other  Oriental  bishops,  upon  their 
arrival,  annul  the  former  decrees  of  the  council,  condemn 
the  propositions  of  Cyril  as  heretical,  and  excommunicate 
Cyril  himself.  The  emperor  proposes  to  institute  a  new 
examination;  but  Nestorius,  dreading  the  influence  of 
Cyril  at  court,  retires  to  his  monastery. 

Patriarchs    forbidden    to    exercise    jurisdiction    over 
churches  not  originally  subject  to  their  respective  sees. 


43^  "j"  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Nola. 

(431,432.)  Two  edicts  of  Theodosius,  by  which  the 
right  of  asylum  was  formally  granted  and  secured  to 
Christian  churches  and  their  precincts. 

In  Crete  many  Jews  embrace  Christianity,  having  saved 
themselves  from  the  delusions  of  a  Jewish  impostor. 
432  *  Patrick  (or   Succath,  a  native  of  Scotland)  begins 

to  preach  Christianity  in  Ireland. 


Although  Pelagianism  was  condemned  by  the  Council 
of  Ephesus,  yet  the  opposite  (Augustinian  or  Occidental) 
system  was  never  established  in  the  East. 

The  Nestorians  separated  themselves  from  the  Catholic 
Church  after  the  Council  of  Ephesus.  They  suffer  perse- 
cution. Many  of  them  settle  in  Persia.  N.B.  Nestorians 
maintain,  that  in  the  person  of  Christ  there  is  no  hypo- 
statical  union  of  the  divine  and  human  natures,  but  only 
an  union  of  will  and  affection. 


433  Attempts  at  reconciling  the  Alexandrian  and  Antiochenian 

parties.  Cyril  subscribes  a  confession  of  faith  drawn  up 
by  Theodoret,  substantially  Nestorian,  but  avoiding  the 
condemnation  of  Cyril's  propositions.  Sentence  of  depo- 
sition against  Nestorius  confirmed.  Compromise  unsatis- 
factory to  both  parties.  At  length  Theodoret  yields  to 
the  wishes   of  the  emperor;  and   Alexander,   Bishop  of 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.        101 

Hierapolis,  and  Meletius,  Bishop  of  Mopsuestia,  adhering 
to  the  Nestorian  cause,  are  deposed  and  banished.  Nes- 
torius  was  banished  to  the  great  Egyptian  Oasis,  and  after- 
wards to  the  Thebaid,  where  he  died.  His  writings  were 
burnt  by  order  of  the  emperor. 


Continued  attempts  to  spread  Christianity  among  the 
Nomadic  Arabs.     Influence  of  the  Jews  prejudicial. 

Persecution  of  the  Catholics  in  Africa  by  the  (Arian) 
Vandals. 

Theodosius  takes  an  active  part  in  the  Nestorian  con- 
troversy. 

Edicts  of  Theodosius  II.  and  Valentinian  (434),  of 
Valentinian  and  Marcian  (454,  455),  of  Leo  and  Anthe- 
mius  (470),  of  Zeno  soon  after,  and  of  Anastasius,  favour 
the  increase  of  Church  property,  and  forbid  its  alienation. 


Prosper  writes  against  the  Semipelagian  doctrines  of 
Cassian. 

Vincent  of  Lerins  writes  his  Commonitorium.  (Semi- 
pelagian  tenets  find  general  acceptance  among  the  monks 
of  southern  Gaul,  including  Vincent.) 

The  Athanasian  Creed  was  probably  composed  about 
this  time  for  the  use  of  the  Gallican  Church. 


T  Cassian. 


(Theodosian  Code.) 
At  this  date  the  Histories  of  Socrates  and  Sozomen 
end. 

Salvian.     Treatise  on  Providence. 


Christian  morality  declines.  —  Two  distinct  codes  of 
morals  gradually  formed,  one  for  perfect  Christians,  and 
another  for  the  more  common  class  of  believers;  —  the 
former  consisting  of  mysticism  and  ascetic  or  overstrained 
virtue,  —  the  latter  in  the  performance  of  outward  cere- 
monies and  ritual  observances.     The  distinction  itself  un- 

h  3 


102  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

sound  and  mischievous ;  the  morality,  to  a  great  extent, 
perverted  or  fictitious. 

History  now  records  fewer  examples  of  high  Christian 
character  than  before.  Complaints  of  the  Fathers,  and 
decrees  of  councils,  lead  us  to  fear  that  impiety  and  dis- 
orderly conduct  prevail  within  the  borders  of  the  Church 
to  a  melancholy  extent. 

Superstition  makes  rapid  progress. 

The  numerous  controversies  of  this  age  tend  to  foster  and 
propagate  an  undue  respect  for  human  authority  and  opinion 
in  matters  of  faith. 

Salvian  speaks  of  pious  bequests  to  the  clergy  as  a  kind 
of  purchase  of  salvation  (redemptio  animae). 

The  Aristotelian  logic  begins  to  rise  into  repute  after  the 
time  of  Augustin.  Attachment  to  Plato  and  his  system 
diminishes  in  proportion  to  the  increasing  unpopularity 
of  Origen. 

440  Leo  I.  or  The  Great,  Patriarch  of  Rome, 
remarkable  for  his  extension  of  the  power  of  the  Romish 
see,  —  his  opposition  to  the  claims  of  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, —  and  his  successful  defence  of  the  orthodox  faith. 

441  Council  of  Orange,  under  Hilary  as  Metropolitan. 
The   acts   of  this  council  indicate  remarkable  discre- 
pancies between   the  ecclesiastical  observances  of  Rome 
and  Gaul. 

During  the  early  part  of  this  century,  disputes  among  the 
Gallican  bishops,  followed  by  reference  to  Rome,  contribute  to 
advance  the  influence  of  the  Roman  see. 

Right  of  asylum  conferred  upon  churches  in  France  by 
the  Council  of  Orange. 


44S2  Huns,  under  Attila,  threaten  Constantinople ;  Theodo- 

sius  buys  them  off,  by  consenting  to  double  the  annual 
tribute  already  paid. 

Predestination. 
Some  adherents  of  Augustin's  system  (e.g.  Leo)   are 
now  disposed  to  teach  the  doctrines  of  free  grace  gener- 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  103 

ally,  without  giving  prominence  to  the  tenets  relating 
to  predestination.  Others  state  the  latter  doctrine  broad- 
ly, and  without  due  moderation  or  caution. 


Sedulius,   Claudius,   Marius  Victor,   and   Dracontius, 
Christian  poets,  fl. 


*  Pelagianism  had  now  made  great  progress  in  Britain. 
About  this  time,  two  Gallic  bishops,  Germanus  and  Lupus, 
were  called  over  to  assist  in  refuting  and  suppressing  this 
scheme  of  doctrine. 


*  Some  suppose  that  the  Gallican  Liturgy,  of  Oriental 
origin,  was  introduced  into  the  British  Churches  by  the 
bishops  who  came  over  to  assist  in  refuting  Pelagian  doc- 
trines. 

Dioscurus,  a  violent  man,  patriarch  of  Alexandria.  By  a 
council  (probably  at  Besancon)  under  Hilary,  Celidonius 
is  deposed.  Celidonius  goes  to  Rome,  where  Leo  receives 
him  to  communion,  and  orders  his  restoration. 

Leo  I.  appoints  Anastasius,  Bishop  of  Thessalonica, 
as  his  vicar  in  Illyricum. 

|  Cyril  of  Alexandria. 

Valentinian  III.  enacts  that  all  bishops  of  the  Western 
Empire  should  obey  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  should  be 
bound  to  appear  before  him  at  his  summons,  as  Rector 
totius  Ecclesige,  possessing  supreme  authority  by  virtue 
of  "Petri  meritum,  jura  urbis,  et  synodum  (Sardic.)." 
Severe  edict  against  the  Manichees. 

Leo  issues  a  sentence  of  excommunication  and  deposi- 
tion against  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries  —  thus  usurping 
jurisdiction  over  Gallic  Churches. 

Leo  claims  jurisdiction  over  the  bishops  of  Africa. 
He  assumes  a  tone  of  superiority  also  in  a  letter  to 
Dioscurus,  Bishop  of  Alexandria. 

The  supreme  authority  of  the  bishops  of  Rome  was 
not  yet  generally  acknowledged  in  the  West ;  much  less 
in  the  East. 

h  4 


104  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

446  *  Conference  at  Verulam  between  Orthodox  and  Pela- 

gians. 

Union  of  two  natures  in  Christ. 

In  Egypt  attempts  were  still  made  to  establish  the 
Alexandrian  doctrines  concerning  the  person  of  Christ, 
in  opposition  to  those  of  Antioch;  while  in  Syria  a 
struggle  was  maintained  against  the  so-called  Monophy- 
sites  of  Egypt. 

Eutyches,  an  abbot  of  Constantinople,  maintains  that 
there  was  only  one  nature  in  Christ  after  his  incarna- 
tion. Hence  his  followers  were  called  Monophysites  or 
Eutychians  ;  and  thus  begins  the  Eutychian  Controversy. 


447  Leo  forbids  the  Sicilian  bishops  to  baptize  on  the  Fes- 

tival of  the  Epiphany,  and  enjoins  the  administration  of 
the  rite  at  Easter  and  Whitsuntide  only. 

The  Seven  Sleepers  said  to  awake  after  a  sleep  of  about 
two  hundred  years. 


448  Theodosius  makes  peace  with  the  Huns,  under  promise 

of  paying  a  heavy  tribute,   and  with  other  humiliating 
conditions. 

t  Vincent  of  Lerins. 


Council  of  Constantinople,  under  Flavian.  Eutyches 
condemned  and  deposed,  notwithstanding  that  Dioscurus, 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and  the  Empress  Eudocia,  espouse 
his  cause. 

449  Council  of  Ephesus,  without  the  Antiochenian  bishops, 

called  the  Synod  of  Bobbers,  proclaims  Eutyches  orthodox, 
and  restores  him  to  his  dignity.  Flavian,  Theodoret,  and 
other  bishops,  deposed.  Proceedings  of  the  council  marked 
by  violence,  and  even  force  of  arms,  whence  its  appel- 
lation. 

Temporary  triumph  of  Monophysites  in  the  East. 
Council  at  Rome  declares  the  acts  of  the  Council  of 
Ephesus  invalid. 


Period,)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  105 

Philoxenus,    Bishop   of  Hierapolis  in    Syria.     Syriac 
I  translation  of  the  New  Testament. 

\  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries.     \  Isidore  of  Pelusium. 


Marcian,  Emp.  East. 

Valentinian  III.  still  reigns  in  the  West. 
#  Anglo  Saxons  land  in   England  under  Hengist  and 
Horsa. 

f  Eucherius,  Bishop  of  Lyons.     Moral  Treatises. 

Differences  between  Jews  and  Christians  confirmed  and 
augmented. 

The  completion  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  which  is  a 
bulwark  of  modern  Judaism  ;  the  introduction  of  religious 
veneration  of  saints  and  relics  in  the  Christian  Church  ; 
disputes  concerning  the  divine  nature,  which  had  long  ex- 
isted among  Christians ;  and  severities  exercised  against 
themselves, — had  contributed  to  confirm  the  Jews  in  their 
prejudices  against  the  Gospel  and  its  adherents. 


Pictures  in  churches.  During  this  century,  the  use  of 
pictures  in  churches,  as  a  means  of  exciting  devotion,  be- 
comes general,  not  without  some  admixture  of  superstition. 

Infant  Baptism  had  now  become  general. 

The  Council  of  Chalcedon  made  some  good  canons  re- 
specting the  discipline  of  the  clergy,  and  against  bribery 
and  corruption,  in  the  matter  of  their  ordination  and  ap- 
pointment. 

#  Monastery  of  Bangor  founded  about  this  time. 

The  avarice  and  rapacity  of  the  clergy  had  now  reached 
an  enormous  height,  as  appears  from  a  treatise  of  Salvian, 
"  Adversus  Avaritiam,"  which  is,  in  fact,  a  defence  of 
ecclesiastical  avarice. 

Alms  are  now  generally  regarded  as  a  means  of  pur- 
chasing forgiveness  of  sins. 

Marriage  of  the  clergy  discountenanced  by  successive 
synods;  e.g.  Orange,  441;  Aries,  452;  Angers,  453; 
Tours,  461  ;  Vannes,  465. 


106 


451 


FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  {Second 

The  bishops  of  Rome  recommend  and  promote  clerical 
celibacy. 

Irruption  of  the  Huns  under  Attila  into  Gaul. 
Valentinian  and  Marcian  publish  an  edict  forbidding 
all  persons,  under  penalty  of  confiscation  of  their  property, 
to  enter  or  resort  to  Heathen  temples  for  the  purposes  of 
worship. 

Flavian  and  his  friends  having  sought  the  support  of 
Leo  the  Great,  who  had  given  his  opinion  against  the 
Eutychian  doctrines,  and  pointed  out  the  true  medium 
between  those  tenets  and  Nestorianism,  appeal  was  made 
to  a  new  council  to  be  regularly  convened.     Hence, 

Council  of  Chalcedon  (Fourth  General), 
convened  by  the  Emperor  Marcian.  Doctrines  of 
Eutyches  and  Nestorius  condemned  as  heretical.  The 
bishop  of  Constantinople  declared  to  possess  equal  rights 
and  privileges  with  the  bishop  of  Rome,  and  to  be  the 
second  in  rank.  The  bishops  of  Rome,  Constantinople, 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  recognised  as  pa- 
triarchs of  the  Universal  Church.  Acts  of  the  late  Council 
of  Ephesus  annulled  ;  and  Dioscurus,  who  had  presided  in 
it,  deposed  and  banished. 

The  Council  of  Chalcedon  determined  the  Catholic 
Faith  to  be,  that,  in  the  person  of  Christ,  the  two  natures, 
divine  and  human,  are  inseparably  united,  but  without 
confusion.  More  particularly,  that  the  one  Son  of  God, 
Christ,  is  of  one  substance  with  the  Father  according  to 
his  Godhead,  and  with  men  in  all  things,  sin  only  ex- 
cepted, according  to  his  manhood;  and  that  this  one 
Christ  subsists  in  two  natures,  which  are  united  without 
confusion  or  division.  Accordingly,  by  this  council,  Euty- 
chianism  (the  confounding  of  the  Godhead  and  manhood 
in  one  nature),  and  Nestorianism  (the  dividing  of  the 
Godhead  and  manhood  into  two  persons),  were  equally 
condemned. 

Nestorian    doctrines    are    propagated    in    Syria    and 
Armenia  by  the  Abbot  Barsymas. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.       107 

451  (Proclus  succeeds  Syrianus  at  Athens  as  professor  of 

the  Eclectic  Philosophy.) 


Attila  devastates  the  north  of  Italy.  (Refugees  con- 
tribute to  the  foundation  of  Venice.) 

Leo  persuades  Attila  to  retire  from  Italy  without 
attacking  Rome. 

Proterius,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  irritates  the  dissa- 
tisfied Monophysite  party,  at   the  head   of  whom   are  a 
presbyter,  Timothy  iElurus,  and  a  deacon,  Peter  Mongus. 
*   Pelagians  banished  from  Britain. 


Death  of  Attila.  Soon  after  his  death  his  kingdom 
was  weakened  by  internal  dissensions,  and  the  Huns 
retired  to  the  border  of  the  Black  Sea  and  their  old 
Asiatic  territory. 

Valentinian  kills  his  general  Aetius. 


#  About  this  time  many  of  the  Irish  were  converted  to 
Christianity  by  means  of  Patrick.  Several  new  bishoprics 
were  erected  in  England. 


Faustus,  Bishop  of  Rhegium. 


Valentinian  III.  killed  by  Maximus,  in  revenge  for  his 
adultery. 

Maximus,  first,  and,  after  his  death,  Avitus,  Emp.  West. 

Marcian  still  reigns  in  the  East. 

Vandals,  under  Genseric,  plunder  Rome. 

Leo  I.  prevails   upon   Genseric   not  to  destroy  Rome 

with  fire  and  sword.     Genseric  takes  away,  among  other 

treasures,   the   sacred  vessels  which  Titus   had  brought 

from  Jerusalem. 

Visigoths  establish  their  dominion  in  Spain. 


f  Theodoret.     J  Petrus  Chrysologus. 
f     Ibas,  Bishop  of  Edessa. 


108  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

457  (457.)  Timothy  iElurus  (Eutychian)  forcibly  gains  pos- 

session of  the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria ;  the  Catholic 
patriarch,  Proterius,  murdered. 


458 


459 


460 


461 


Leo  the  Thracian,  Emp.  East. 
Majorian,  Emp.  West. 


The  Abbot  Severinus  propagates  the  Gospel  in  Bavaria. 


Leo  recommends  private  confession  of  sins  to  a  priest,  in 
preference  to  public  confession.  This  practice  of  private 
confession  contributed  to  increase  the  influence  of  the 
clergy  to  a  dangerous  extent. 


The  Emperor  Leo  collects  the  subscriptions  of  the 
Eastern  bishops  to  the  canons  of  the  late  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon ;  of  these,  sixteen  demand  an  explanation  of  the 
phrase  "  two  natures." 

Timothy  JElurus  banished  from  Alexandria,  upon  the 
interference  of  the  emperor.     Timothy  Salophacialus,   a 
judicious  and  moderate  Catholic,  made  patriarch  in  his 
room.      Peace  for  a  time  in  the  Church  of  Egypt, 
(al.  455.  al.  439.)      *  Patrick,  Bishop  of  Armagh. 

#■   Saxons  dominant  in  England. 

Majorian  dethroned  by  Ricimer. 

Severus,  Emp.  West. 

Leo  the  Thracian  is  still  emperor  of  the  East. 


t  Simeon   Stylites,  the  Elder.     Prosper  of  Aquitaine, 
private  secretary  to  Leo  L,  a  Christian  epigrammatist. 


Hilary,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  claims  the  primacy  of 
St.  Peter.  Interferes  in  the  affairs  of  the  Gallican 
Churches.  Refers  to  the  decree  of  Valentinian,  enacting 
that  all  bishops  should  submit  to  regulations  made  by  the 
bishop  of  Rome. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         109 

Hilary  founds  two  libraries  in  the  baptistery  of  the 
Lateran  Church  at  Rome. 

This  is  the  first  mention  in  history  of  libraries  be- 
longing to  Roman  bishops ;  such  however,  no  doubt,  had 
already  been  formed. 


Monachism.  —  A  monastery  (studium)  built  at  Constan- 
tinople for  the  a^o/^yjTOi,  watchers, — a  class  of  Cenobites, 
who  professed  to  keep  up  a  continual  course  of  divine 
worship,  day  and  night. 

Peter  the  Fuller,  a  Monophysite  monk  of  Constanti- 
nople, made  patriarch  of  Antioch,  where  he  occasions  dis- 
turbances by  adding  to  the  Trisagium  the  words  "  who 
was  crucified  for  us." 

Hilary  reprimands  Mamertus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  for 
having  acted  as  metropolitan  within  the  limits  of  the  pro- 
vince assigned  by  himself  to  the  bishop  of  Aries. 

Hilary,  in  a  council  at  Rome,  decides  authoritatively 
some  affairs  of  Spanish  Churches,  concerning  which  cer- 
tain bishops  of  that  country  had  sought  his  opinion  and 
advice. 


Severus  murdered.     Ricimer  rules  the  West. 


Anthemius,  Emp.  West. 
Leo  the  Thracian  still  reigns  in  the  East. 


It  is  said,  but  upon  slight  authority,  that  Anthemius 
at  one  time  meditated  the  restoration  of  Heathen  super- 
stition. But,  about  this  time,  Anthemius  and  Leo  pub- 
lished a  severe  edict  against  the  performance  of  Heathen 
rites ;  enacting  that  if  any  man  should  perform  such  rites 
upon  another's  estate,  or  in  his  house,  with  the  know- 
ledge of  the  owner,  the  property  of  the  latter  should  be 
confiscated,  and  himself  should  be  deprived  of  his  civil 
rank  ;  or,  if  of  no  rank,  should  suffer  corporal  punishment, 
and  either  be  sent  to  the  mines,  or  at  least  condemned 
to  perpetual  exile. 


HO  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

About  this  time,  it  was  ordained  that  the  revenues  of 
churches  should  be  divided  into  four  parts  (varying,  per- 
haps, in  their  relative  proportions) ;  namely,  one  for  the 
bishop,  another  for  the  rest  of  the  clergy,  the  third  for 
maintaining  the  fabric  of  the  church,  and  the  fourth  for 
the  benefit  of  the  poor. 
469  Leo  and  Anthemius  prohibit  the  obtaining  of  bishop- 

rics by  purchase. 

Solemn  processions,  called  Rogations  or  Litanies,  insti- 
tuted about  this  time  by  Mamertus,  Bishop  of  Vienne. 


Faustus  protests  against  both  the  doctrine  of  Predestin- 
ation (as  it  had  been  taught  by  Augustin)  and  the  errors 
of  Pelagius. 

471  Peter  the  Fuller,  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  banished, 

f  Paul  Orosius,  friend  and  pupil  of  Augustin. 
Sidonius  Apollinaris,  Bishop  of  Clermont,  fl. 


47^  Ricimer  takes  and  plunders  Rome. 

Olybrius,  Emp.  West. 
Leo  the  Thracian  continues  Emperor  of  the  East. 
Death  of  Ricimer. 


Acacius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  contends  vehemently 
with  Simplicius  for  his  equality  of  privilege  and  rights,  as 
established  by  the  twenty-eighth  canon  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon. 

Advance  of  the  Patriarchate. 

Archbishops  (in  part)  supply  the  place  of  metropoli- 
tans. Higher  orders  of  clergy  oppress  the  lower;  and 
the  rights  of  the  people  lost. 

To  the  superior  orders  of  clergy  are  added,  Patriarch's 
Vicars,  Archpriests,  Archdeacons,  Abbots  and  Archi- 
mandrites (the  monks  now  beginning  to  reckon  them- 
selves among  the  clergy). 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         Ill 

The  ecclesiastical  learning  of  the  times  exerts  an  unfa- 
vourable influence  upon  general  literature,  and  holds  it  in 
check. 


Glycerius,  Emp.  West. 


f  Claudianus  Mamertus,  a  presbyter  of  Vienne. 


Leo  III.,  and  afterwards  Zeno,  Emp.  East. 
Julius  Nepos,  Emp.  West. 


Romulus  Augustulus,  Emp.  West. 


Fresh  Monophysite  disturbances  in  Egypt. 
Semipelagians. 
(475.)  At  the  Councils  of  Aries  and  Lyons,  the  Pres- 
byter Lucidus,  a  promoter  of  the  strict  Augustinian 
system,  was  compelled  to  retract  his  opinions;  and  the 
Semipelagian  system  of  Faustus,  Bishop  of  Rhegium,  was 
sanctioned  as  orthodox. 

In   Africa  and   Italy  the  Augustinian    system    is   re- 
tained. 

Odoacer,   general    of  the    Heruli,    defeats   and  deposes 
Romulus. 

End  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire. 

Odoacer,  King  of  Italy  and  Noricum. 

Basilic  us,  Emp.  East, 

after  the  Deposition  of  Zeno. 


Timothy    iElurus    again    Monophysite    Patriarch    of 
Alexandria.     Succeeded  by  Peter  Mongus. 


Catholics  in  Africa  persecuted  by  the  Vandals. 


Zeno,  Emp.  East,  restored. 


112  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

Zeno  destroyed  a  Heathen  temple,  which  had  remained 
near  Constantinople.  He  caused  the  Samaritans  to  be 
driven  from  Mount  Gerizim,  and  a  church,  dedicated  to 
the  "  Mother  of  God,"  to  be  built  on  its  summit.  Some 
of  the  Samaritans  embrace  Christianity. 


477 
478 


Monophysite  patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and  Antioch 
expelled. 

Death  of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria :  —  the  Catholic 
party  elect  as  his  successor  John  Talaja;  the  Monophy- 
sites,  Peter  Mongus.  The  latter,  by  the  aid  of  Acacius, 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  the  Emperor,  confirmed 
in  his  dignity.     Peter's  plan  for  the  union  of  parties. 

Zeno  endeavoured  to  promote  peace  between  the  con- 
flicting religious  sects  of  his  day. 


About  this  time  great  complaints  were  made  concerning 
the  vices  of  the  clergy. 

Gelasius  of  Cyzicum  composes  a  History  of  the  Council 
of  Nicaea. 


430  Simplicius,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  appoints  Zeno,  Bishop 

of  Seville,  his  vicar  in  Spain. 


Benedict  born  at  Nursia  in  Umbria. 
Boethius,  ten  years  old,  sent  to  Athens  to  study. 


481  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks. 


48f2  Zeno  publishes  his  Henoticon,  or  Decree  of  Union,  de- 

signed to  reconcile  the  Catholics  and  Monophysites.  The 
decree  was  approved  and  promoted  by  Acacius,  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople.  Mongus  subscribed  the  decree,  which 
required  disputants  to  abstain  from  all  controverted 
terms,  in  stating  the  doctrine  concerning  the  person  of 
Christ.  Violent  Monophysites  in  Egypt  withdraw  from 
communion  with  the  Patriarch  Mongus  (a*e$aAo/). 
Friends  of  the  Chalcedonian  Council  suspect  an  intention 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         118 

to  favour  the  Monophysite  doctrine.  Great  disturbances 
in  connexion  with  this  question  during  the  reigns  of 
Zeno  and  his  successors. 

j"  Severinus,  Apostle  of  Noricum. 


On  occasion  of  the  election  of  Felix  as  patriarch  of 
Rome,  Basil,  prime  minister  of  Odoacer,  claims  on  behalf 
of  the  king  a  right  of  interference  in  such  elections. 
(Afterwards  protested  against  by  Council  of  Rome, 
a.d.  502.)  

Conference  of  Catholic  and  Arian  bishops  at  Carthage. 

Felix,  in  a  council  at  Rome,  condemns,  deposes,  and 
excommunicates  Acacius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople; 
who,  in  return,  excommunicates  Felix. 

From  this  time  to  5 1 9,  no  communion  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches, 


T  Salvian.     f  Faustus,  Bishop  of  Rhegium. 

Peter  the   Fuller   subscribes    the    Henoticon;    again 
admitted  as  patriarch  of  Antioch. 


f  Barsumas,  Bishop  of  Nisibis. 
(j    Proclus,  an  Eclectic  philosopher.) 
iEneas  of  Gaza,  a  Christian  philosopher,  fl. 
Vigilius,  Bishop  of  Thapsus,  writes  against  Arian  and 
Nestorian  tenets.     He  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  com- 
posed the  Athanasian  Creed. 

Clovis  destroys  the  remains  of  Roman  power  in  Gaul, 
and  founds  the  monarchy  of  the  Franks. 

The  Franks,  at  the  time  of  their  irruption  into  Gaul, 
were  Heathens. 


Theodoric  and  the  Ostrogoths  enter  Italy. 

"("  Peter  the  Fuller,     f  Sidonius  Apollinaris. 
The  Monophysites  now  obtain   the    aid   of  two   able 
leaders,  Philoxenus,  Bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Syria;  and 
Severus,  a  monk,  afterwards  patriarch  of  Constantinople. 


114  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (SeCOTld 

489  I  Acacius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 


Age  of 

Ambition,  Usurpation. 

and  Contention. 


491  Anastasius,  Emp.  East. 

Anastasius  accorded  equal  rights  and  privileges  to  the 
Catholics,  Eutychians,  and  all  other  religious  parties  in 
his  empire.  He  deposed  turbulent  and  quarrelsome 
bishops  of  various  sects. 


Gennadius   continues    Jerome's  List  of  Ecclesiastical 
Writers. 

(Marcianus  Capella,  fl.). 

Andreas,    Bishop   of  Csesarea  in    Cappadocia;  Com- 
mentary on  the  Revelation  of  St.  John. 


493  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  conquers  Odoacer, 
and  becomes  king  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Provence,  the  South  of 
Germany,  Hungary,  and  Dalmatia.  Resides  at  Ravenna. 

He  restores  prosperity  to  Italy. 

Theodoric,  himself  an  Arian,  tolerant  of  the  Catholics. 
Throughout  his  reign  he  grants  protection  also  to  the 
Jews. 

f  Gennadius. 
Cassiodorus,  fl. 

494  Gelasius,  in  a  council  at  Home,  asserts  that  the  primacy 
of  the  Roman  see  is  founded,  not  on  the  decrees  of  councils, 
hut  on  the  divine  authority  of  our  Lord's  appointment 
[Thou  art  Peter,  Sfc).  Alexandria  declared  to  be  the  second 
church,  and  Antioch  the  third,  in  dignity. 

The  Council  of  Rome,  under  Gelasius,  distinguishes 
between  the  canonical  books  of  Scripture  and  apocryphal 
books.  It  also  appoints  certain  writings  of  the  Fathers, 
&c.  to  be  read,  and  prohibits  others.  The  genuineness 
of  this  decree  is  doubted.  Probably,  as  it  exists,  it  is 
interpolated. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         115 

N.B.    The  canon  of  Gelasius  is  substantially  the  same 
as  that  of  Augustin  and  the  Council  of  Carthage. 

Communion  in  both  kinds, 
Gelasius    (writing    against    the     Manichees)    strongly 
asserts  that  the  Lord's  supper  cannot  be  rightly  received 
by  partaking  of  the  bread  only.     He  declares  the  dividing 
of  the  mystery  to  be  an  act  of  sacrilege. 


Some  refer  the  institution  of  the  order  of  Canons 
Regular  of  St.  Augustin  to  this  date. 

Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks,  baptized  by  Remigius, 
Bishop  of  Rheims. 

Dominion  of  the  Franks  contributes  to  the  extension  of  the 
Catholic  Church. 


"J"  Gelasius. 


Anastasius  II.,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  disposed  to  moderate 
the  claims  of  his  see  with  reference  to  Constantinople. 
Opposed  herein  by  many  of  his  clergy. 


After  the  death  of  Anastasius  II.,  Symmachus  and 
Laurentius  are  severally  elected  as  his  successors  by  two 
rival  parties.  The  contest  involves  great  disorder  and 
bloodshed.     Theodoric  declares  in  favour  of  Symmachus. 

Council  at  Rome,  concerning  election  of  patriarchs  to 
the  see. 

The  whole  Persian  Church,  in  a  council,  declares  its 
adoption  of  Nestorian  doctrines. 


(Stobaeus,  Charisius,  fL). 

During  this  century,    the   doctrines  of  Scripture  re- 
specting the  person  and  nature  of  Christ,  —  original  sin, 

free  will,  —  the  operation  and  means  of  divine  grace, 

were  enforced  and  illustrated  by  many  valuable  definitions, 
proofs,  and  explanations. 


116  FROM   THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL        (Second 


End  of        But  writers  of  this  age   (orthodox  Fathers)  laid  the 
Fifth    foundation  of  various  errors,   such  as  —  False  doctrines 

concerning  departed  saints,  the  fable  of  purgatory,  the 

fictitious  authority  of  apocryphal  books. 


Cen- 
tury. 


The  Agapae,  or  Feasts  of  Charity,  have  been  discon- 
tinued. 

The  daily  celebration  of  mass  (the  Lord's  supper)  had 
now  become  general  in  the  West.  It  was  consequently 
often  performed  by  the  priest  alone. 

Veneration  for  martyrs  and  saints  succeeded  by  actual 
adoration.  Frequent  pilgrimages  to  their  tombs.  In- 
creased importance  of  relics.  These  superstitious  prac- 
tices of  the  people  were  countenanced  and  promoted  by 
the  clergy  and  monks. 

Of  the  new  rites  and  ceremonies,  institutions,  or 
customs,  introduced  during  this  century,  the  following  are 
the  principal  :  —  Raised  pulpits  in  churches  ;  litanies  ;  the 
Trisagion ;  rogation  days  ;  the  chanting  of  creeds. 

And  others  of  a  more  objectionable  character ;  such  as 
— The  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary  (promoted  by  the 
Nestorian  controversies)  ;  increased  pomp  and  splendour 
of  vestments,  &c.  used  during  divine  service ;  the  con- 
secration of  tapers  to  be  used  in  churches ;  private  con- 
fession. 

Three  conflicting  parties  in  the  Church  :  one  contending 
for  the  Henoticon  without  the  Council  of  Chalcedon ; 
another  for  the  Henoticon  and  the  Council ;  a  third  in 
favour  of  the  Council  without  the  Henoticon. 

Patriarchs  of  Rome  and  Constantinople  engaged  in 
continual  disputes  respecting  the  extent  and  limits  of  their 
respective  jurisdictions. 

502  A  council  at  Rome  repeals  the  laws  of  Odoacer  respect- 
ing the  election  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  and  the  property 
of  the  Church. 

503  Council  at  Rome  (Synodus  Palmaris),  convened  by 
Theodoric,  concerning  some  charges  brought  against 
Symmachus.      Symmachus  acquitted,  and  confirmed  in 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         117 

his  dignity.  Ennodius  writes  a  defence  of  this  synod, 
in  which  he  bestows  immoderate  panegyrics  on  the  Roman 
patriarch,  and  from  which  it  appears  that  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Papal  power  was  already  laid.  In  another 
council  this  work  is  approved,  and  the  proposition  main- 
tained, that  the  bishop  of  Rome  is  not  amenable  to  any 
human  authority,  and  can  be  judged  by  none  but  God. 

Western  bishops  manifest  a  disposition  to  acknowledge 
the  patriarch  of  Rome  as  their  head  and  governor,  ap- 
parently with  a  view  to  consolidate  and  increase  the  power 
of  the  Church,  as  a  body,  against  the  temporal  princes, 
many  of  whom  were  Arians. 

Defensores. 
By  order  of  Anastasius  (505),  certain  persons,  chosen 
from  the  Orthodox,  having  professed  their  faith  on  oath  in 
the  presence  of  a  bishop,  were  specially  charged  with  the 
defence  of  the  faith.  They  were  entitled,  from  the  nature 
of  their  office,  Defensores. 


The  acts  of  the  Synodus  Palmaris  (503)  indicate  a 
subjection  of  the  Roman  patriarchs  and  councils  to  the 
sovereign  prince. 

Thrasamund  (Arian),  King  of  the  Vandals,  banishes 
more  than  two  hundred  Catholic  bishops  of  Africa, 
for  having  consecrated  bishops  contrary  to  his  command. 
Symmachus  receives  and  maintains  the  banished  bishops. 

Clovis,  having  by  a  course  of  treachery  and  cruelty 
established  his  sovereignty  over  all  the  Franks,  pays  great 
respect  to  the  clergy,  and  is  zealous  for  the  propagation  of 
Christianity  throughout  his  dominions. 

Conversion  of  the  Franks. 
This  people,  like  their  prince,  repeated  and  assented  to 
a  creed  which  they  did  not  understand ;  they  were  amused 
by  a  splendid,  or  at  least  imposing,  ceremonial ;  listened 
with  wonder  to  fabulous  legends  and  reports  of  pretended 
miracles ;  paid  a  blind  veneration  and  deference  to  the 
clergy;  performed  penance,  and  gave  large  gifts  to 
churches  and  monasteries ;  and  remained,  as  they  for- 

i  3 


118  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL       (SeCOTld 

merly  had  been,  a  barbarous,  ferocious,  and  licentious 
people.     Such,  alas  !  was  the  conversion  of  the  Franks. 

Clovis,  during  his  reign,  sent  a  royal  crown  of  gold, 
set  with  precious  stones,  as  a  present  to  "  the  Apostle 
Peter."  Theodoric  also  made  presents  to  the  Roman 
Church. 

Under  pretence  of  zeal  for  the  Catholic  religion,  Clovis 
now  makes  war  upon  the  (Arian)  Visigoths  in  Gaul. 


Celibacy  of  the  clergy,  —  At  this  period,  the  liberty  of 
the  clergy  with  respect  to  marriage  appears  to  have  been 
but  little  abridged,  if  at  all,  in  the  East. 

Number  and  influence  of  monks  continually  on  the 
increase.  Profligacy  generally  prevails  in  the  monas- 
teries of  the  West ;  fanaticism  in  those  of  the  East,  jg 

506  The  Council  of  Agde  (held  by  permission  of  Alaric, 
the  Arian  king  of  the  Visigoths)  forbids  the  multiplica- 
tion of  monasteries?  and  makes  many  canons  respecting 
the  discipline  of  the  clergy?  —  a  subject  which  occupied  the 
attention  of  many  provincial  councils  about  this  time.  It 
enacts  that  every  member  of  the  Church  shall  receive  the 
Lord's  supper  at  least  three  times  in  every  year,  namely, 
on  the  high  festivals. 

507  Clovis  defeats  and  kills  Alaric  II.  King  of  the  Visigoths. 
Gaul  is  now  in  undisputed  possession  of  the  Franks. 


510  Severus,  a  monk,  opposed  to  the  decision  of  the  Council 

of  Chalcedon,  goes  to  Constantinople  with  a  large  body 
of  adherents,  and  procures  the  deposition  of  the  patriarch 
of  that  city. 

The  king  of  Persia  (Cabades)  favours  the  Christians, 
who  are  said  to  have  miraculously  assisted  him  in  recover- 
ing a  treasure.  


Barbarism  of  the  Middle  Ages  begins. 
Irruptions  of  the  Barbarians  into  the  West  during  this 
century    very  prejudicial   to    the   interests  of  literature. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.        119 

Learning  preserved  in  the  bishops*  schools  and  monas- 
teries. Here  arts  and  sciences  were  taught  very  imper- 
fectly ;  but  great  attention  was  bestowed  upon  the  reading 
of  the  earlier  ecclesiastical  writers.  The  works  of  ancient 
authors  preserved  in  the  libraries  of  the  monasteries ;  but 
the  libraries  of  monks  and  churchmen  were  composed 
chiefly  of  ecclesiastical  and  ascetic  works.  Greek  litera- 
ture generally  neglected;  Latin  poorly  cultivated ;  rhetoric 
turned  into  bombast ;  liberal  arts  comprised  within  a  few 
barren  rules  ;  study  of  philosophy  abandoned  and  decried. 

This  barbarism  almost  extinguishes  the  light  and  life 
of  Christianity;  as  the  influence  of  the  Church,  in  the 
course  of  its  previous  corruption,  had  already  suppressed 
ancient  literature. 

Boethius,  privy  counsellor  to  Theodoric,  King  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  explains  and  recommends  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy ;  which  hence  rises  in  credit. 

(The  Masora,  or  Jewish  criticism  of  the  Hebrew  text 
of  the  Old  Testament,  begun  by  the  Rabbins  of  Ti- 
berias.) 

Doctrine  of  the  Existence  of  God, 
Augustin  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  demonstrate 
this  fact,  or  to  prove  it  by  reason.  He  endeavoured  (in 
the  manner  of  Plato)  to  deduce  it  from  our  ideas  of  per- 
fect truth  and  wisdom.  Boethius  also  (after  the  Stoics) 
sought  to  prove  the  existence  of  God,  the  supreme  good, 
from  our  ideas  of  absolute  perfection. 

Doctrines  of  Grace  and  Predestination, 
The   Augustinian   system    now  begins    to    find   more 
acceptance  in  Gaul.     Caesar,  Archbishop  of  Aries,  espe- 
cially pleads  in  its  favour. 


Death  of  Clovis.  First  partition  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Franks: — Theodoric  I.  at  Metz;  Chlodomirat  Orleans; 
Childebert  at  Paris ;   Clotaire  at  Soissons. 

Clovis  had  been  a  great  patron  of  the  clergy  ;  had  built 
and  endowed  many  churches  and  monasteries;  was  the 

i  4 


120  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

founder  of  the  French  Church,  as  distinguished  from  the 
old  Gallican ;  and  was  entitled  "  The  Son  of  the  Catholic 
Church,"— "The  Great,"— and,  by  some,  "The  Pious." 


516 


517 


511  By  the  Council  of  Orleans,  laymen  were  forbidden  to 
take  holy  orders  without  the  command  of  the  king,  or  the 
consent  of  some  civil  magistrate. 

The  Council  of  Orleans  makes  regulations  respecting 
clerical  discipline;  and  establishes  the  use  of  litanies  or 
rogations  in  France. 

512  Sever  us  and  other  Monophysite  monks  attempt  to  in- 
troduce at  Constantinople  the  words  "who  was  crucified 
for  us,"  as  an  addition  to  the  Trisagion,  which  had  already 
been  done  by  Peter  the  Fuller  at  Antioch.  The  emperor 
at  first  favours  Severus  and  his  party. 

Violent  religious  commotions  disturb  the  Eastern  em- 
pire. The  Emperor  Anastasius,  refusing  to  give  exclusive 
support  to  the  Orthodox,  is  regarded  as  a  heretic  and  a 
persecutor. 

Insurrection  of  Vitalian,  who  lays  siege  to  Constantinople. 
514          In  consequence  of  the  insurrection  of  Vitalian,  Anas- 
tasius is  compelled  to  declare  in  favour  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon.  

Christianity  is  now  more  widely  spread,  and  more 
firmly  established,  than  heretofore,  in  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland. 


The  Slavi  begin  to  spread  themselves  over  Europe. 

By  the  Council  of  Tarragona  bishops  were  permitted 
to  associate  with  themselves  in  council  a  certain  number 
of  laymen  as  well  as  presbyters  of  their  dioceses.  Per- 
haps these  laymen  were  not  allowed  to  vote. 


Sigismund,  King  of  the  Burgundians,  renounces 
Arianism,  and  conforms  to  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
labours  of  Avitus  had  probably  contributed  to  this 
result. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.        121 

517  The  Council  of  Lyons  inflicts  ecclesiastical  censure  on 

a   Burgundian  nobleman  who  had  married  within  the 
prohibited  degrees. 

Justin  I.  Emp.  East. 
Justin  repeals  the  Henoticon,  and  gives  effect  to  the  decrees 
of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon. 

Justin    deprives    reputed    heretics    of   their    churches 
(except,  at  first,  the  Arians,  by  virtue  of  his  treaty  with 
Theodoric). 
Peace  restored  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches. 


The  Gothic  and  German  princes  retain  their  dominion 
over  the  clergy  of  all  degrees,  but  support  them  with 
their  favour,  and  contribute  to  the  exaltation  of  their 
power. 

About  this  time,  regulations  were  frequently  made 
concerning  the  withdrawal  of  the  clergy  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  civil  magistrate. 


Zacharias  Scholasticus,  Bishop  of  Mitylene  in  Lesbos,  a 
Christian  philosopher,  fl. 


War  with  Persia. 

The  Monarchy  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome 

gradually  supersedes 

the  Oligarchy 

of 

the  Patriarchate. 

Tlxe  title  of  Pope  begins  to  be  exclusively  applied  to  the 
bishop  of  Home. 

Monophgsite  Controversies. 

Many  Monophysite  bishops  who  were  deposed  during 

this  reign  repaired  to  Alexandria.    Here  arose  dissensions 

among  the  Monophysites  themselves ;  some  asserting  the 

corruptibility   of  our  Saviour's  body  (Phthartolatrae,  or 


122  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

Severians,  from  Severus),  and  others  insisting  upon  its 
incorruptibility  (Aphthartodocetse,  Phantasiasts,  or  Julian- 
ists,  from  Julian,  Bishop  of  Halicarnassus).  The  Phthar- 
tolatrse  produced  the  Agnoetas,  or  (from  Themistius,  a 
deacon  of  Alexandria)  Themistians,  who  maintained  that 
many  things  were  unknown  to  Christ  according  to  his 
human  nature.  The  AphthartoJatrse  again  divided  into 
the  Actistetae,  who  held  that  the  body  of  Christ  was  un- 
created, and  the  Ktistolatraa,  who  affirmed  the  contrary. 


521        *  Saxon  Heptarchy  in  England  in  course  of  formation. 


t  Ennodius,  Bishop  of  Pavia. 
523  t  Hormisdas,  Roman  Patriarch. 


524}  Justin,    by   an    edict,    deprives    the    Arians   of    their 

churches  in  the  East.  Theodoric  demands  the  restoration 
of  these  churches,  threatening  to  withdraw  his  toleration 
of  the  Orthodox  in  Italy  in  case  of  refusal. 

525  John   I.    goes   to  Constantinople   at   the  instance   of 

Theodoric,  and  obtains  the  restoration  of  the  churches  to 
the  Arians.  When  he  approached  Constantinople,  the 
emperor,  and  almost  the  whole  city,  came  out  to  meet 
him,  bearing  wax  tapers  and  crosses  :  the  emperor  pro- 
strated himself  on  the  ground,  and  did  homage.  He  also 
caused  himself  to  be  crowned  by  the  patriarch.  (Some 
say,  that  John  urged  Justin  to  retain  possession  of  the 
Arian  churches.) 


About  this  time,  Dionysius  the  Less  compiled  his  col- 
lection of  the  ancient  canons,  and  of  the  decretal  epistles 
of  the  popes  from  Siricius  (384). 

Boethius  put  to  death,  —  a  Roman  patriot  and  Christian 
philosopher.  His  zeal  for  Orthodoxy  against  the  Arians 
probably  favoured  the  unfounded  charge  of  his  having 
maintained  a  treasonable  understanding  with  Justin,  Em- 
peror of  the  East. 

|  Alcimus  Avitus,  Bishop  of  Vienne,  a  Christian  poet, 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         123 

Athalaric,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths. 


John  I.  dies  in  prison.  Disputes  respecting  the  election 
of  his  successor.  Felix  III.,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  appointed 
by  the  interference  of  Theodoric. 


About  this  time,  several  councils  made  regulations  con- 
cerning ecclesiastical  discipline. 

The  Festival  of  the  Purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary  was 
established  probably  about  this  time,  to  supply  the  place 
of  the  Lupercalia,  a  heathen  festival  lately  abolished. 


Justinian,  Emp.  East. 

During  this  reign,  the  Eastern  empire  advanced  to  a 
high  degree  of  power  and  splendour,  chiefly  by  means  of 
the  successes  of  the  emperor's  generals. 

In  the  West,  the  Franks  subdue  the  Alemanni,  Ba- 
varians, and  Thuringians. 

Justinian  destroys  the  remnants  of  Paganism  in  his  empire 
generally. 

Some  individuals,  however,  continued  to  retain,  and 
even  to  profess,  their  attachment  to  the  ancient  super- 
stition. Several  writers  employ  their  pen  against  Christ- 
ianity during  this  century. 

Many  forced,  and  therefore  insincere  or  partial,  con- 
versions to  Christianity  in  the  East  during  this  reign, 
arising  from  the  measures  of  Justinian  for  the  suppression 
of  idolatry,  such  as  the  burning  of  heathen  books,  de- 
struction of  images,  penal  statutes,  imprisonment  and 
flogging  of  the  professors  of  Heathenism. 

*  Persecution,  and  gradual  suppression,  of  Christianity  in 
England  under  the  Anglo  Saxons. 

I   Procopius  of  Gaza. 

Justinian  enacts,  that  when  the  bishopric  of  any  town 
becomes  vacant,  the  inhabitants  shall  nominate  three 
persons,  and  then  elect  one  of  that  number  as  bishop ; 
that  no  one  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  who  may  have 


124  FROM   THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

children   to  provide  for;  and  that  no  ecclesiastical  ap- 
pointments   whatever    shall   be    procured   by   purchase. 
Bishops  and  metropolitans  forbidden  to  leave  their  dio- 
ceses or  provinces  without  special  licence  or  command, 
5%9  Justinian   (reviving  and  extending  a  law  of  Honorius) 

requires  the  bishop  of  every  city  to  visit  the  prisons 
weekly,  and  to  take  cognizance  of  the  condition  and 
treatment  of  the  prisoners,  and  associates  them  with  the 
local  magistrates  in  the  administration  of  various  civil 
affairs. 


Pelagians  and  Semipelagians. 

The  Augustinian  system  of  doctrine  established  in 
Gaul  by  the  Council  of  Orange,  in  opposition  at  once  to 
Pelagian  and  Semipelagian  tenets.  The  decree  of  the 
council  was  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Valentia,  same 
year,  and  by  Boniface  in  530. 

Final  triumph  of  the  Augustinian  or  Church  doctrines 
concerning  Grace  and  Predestination  over  Semipelagian 
tenets. 

Monachism. 

Benedict  of  Nursia  establishes  his  monastic  rules  and 
institutes.  His  intention  was  "  to  form  an  order  whose 
discipline  should  be  milder,  their  establishment  more 
solid,  and  their  manners  more  regular  than  those  of  other 
monastic  bodies ;  and  whose  members,  during  the  course 
of  a  holy  and  peaceful  life,  were  to  divide  their  time 
between  prayer,  reading,  the  education  of  youth,  and 
other  learned  and  pious  labours."  He  distributed  his 
monks  into  twelve  monasteries,  of  which  that  on  Mount 
Casino,  in  Campania,  was  the  most  celebrated.  His  rules 
demanded  that  every  monk  should  pass  through  a  period 
of  probation  (novitiate) ;  that  all  should  be  bound  by 
oath  to  a  perpetual  residence  in  their  monastery, — to 
render  implicit  obedience  to  their  superior,  —  to  live  in  ac- 
cordance with  prescribed  law,  —  and  to  occupy  themselves 
in  study  or  manual  labour,  especially  in  agriculture. 
Benedict  also  prescribed  the  education  of  youth  as  an 
especial  duty. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.       125 

This  reformation  soon  spread  beyond  Italy,  to  Gaul, 
Spain,  and  other  countries. 

(Justinian's Code  published;  Codex Repetitce Pr&lectionis.) 
In  the  schools  of  monasteries,  youths  were  trained  to 
become  monks  rather  than  scholars  ;  but  from  this  time 
literature  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  encouraged  amongst 
the  monks,  who  had  hitherto  been  taught  to  despise  it, 
and  especially  to  avoid  the  use  of  ancient  (profane) 
authors. 

Theological  instruction  was  generally  confined  to  the 
act  of  training  the  junior  clergy  to  the  performance  of 
public  offices  of  religion,  and  the  committing  of  portions 
of  Scripture  to  memory.  Parish  priests  were  ordered  to 
keep  the  young  unmarried  readers  in  their  houses,  and 
give  them  such  instruction. 

Decline  of  Modern  Platonism. 
That  system  was  gradually  replaced  by  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy,  which  was  especially  patronised  by  the  Mono- 
physites  and  Nestorians.     The  schools   of  Athens  were 
closed  by  an  edict  of  Justinian  in  529. 


Boniface,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  after  a  contested  election. 
Great  bribery  and  corruption  now  practised  in  the  elections 
to  this  see.  Roman  senate  passed  a  decree  against  these 
malpractices. 

Dispute  between  the  patriarchs  of  Rome  and  Constantinople 
revived,  on  occasion  of  an  appeal  from  Stephen,  Metro- 
politan of  Larissa,  to  Boniface,  against  the  sentence  of 
Epiphanius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  It  appears  that 
Stephen  was  eventually  deposed,  notwithstanding  this 
appeal. 

(Chosroes  I.  King  of  Persia.) 

Gothic  kings  in  Italy  assert  and  exercise  the  right  of 
sanctioning  the  appointment,  and  confirming  the  elec- 
tion, of  the  patriarchs  of  Rome  and  subordinate  bishops. 
Rates  of  payment  for  such  confirmation.  Justinian  enacts 
that  no  one  who  has  filled  a  civil  office  shall  be  eligible  to 
the  rank  of  bishop  or  presbyter  in  the  Church. 


126  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

532  f  Boniface.  Contests  and  great  corruption  at  the  elec- 
tion of  a  successor. 

Justinian  sanctions  as    orthodox  the    formula    "  God 
(one  person  of  the  Trinity)  was  crucified  in  the  flesh." 

533  First  mention  of  the  forged  writings  attributed  to 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  made  this  year,  in  course  of  a 
conference  at  Constantinople. 


During  this  reign,  Christianity  is  embraced  by  the 
Abasgi,  between  the  Euxine  and  Mount  Caucasus ;  the 
Heruli,  beyond  the  Danube ;  the  Alans,  Lazi,  Zani,  and 
other  uncivilised  tribes.  Many  Jews  also  embrace  the 
Gospel  in  the  East.  Justinian  enacts  that  no  Jew  should 
be  allowed  to  give  testimony  in  civil  causes  against  the 
Orthodox. 

Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  in  his  Christian  Topography, 
speaks  of  Christian  churches  at  three  places  in  the  East 
Indies;  namely,  on  the  island  Taprobane  (Ceylon),  on 
the  coast  of  the  Pepper  Island  (probably  Malabar),  and 
at  Calliana. 

Kingdom  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa  distracted  by  eccle- 
siastical differences. 

In  France,  Christians  are  forbidden  to  intermarry  with 
Jews,  by  the  second  Council  of  Orleans. 

534f  Justinian  made  various  laws  respecting  the  condition 

and  qualification  of  persons  eligible  to  the  several  orders 
of  the  clergy;  concerning  the  payment  of  fees,  &c.  on 
institution ;  and  the  age  of  ecclesiastical  officers.  (Lowest 
age  of  a  presbyter,  35  years ;  of  a  deacon  or  subdeacon, 
25;  of  a  reader,  18;  of  a  deaconess,  40.) 

In  534  he  commits  to  the  bishops  the  execution  of 
certain  restrictions  relating  to  the  management  of  stage- 
plays  ;  reproves  the  propensity  of  many  of  the  clergy  to 
gaming  and  theatrical  amusements ;  and  forbids  deacons, 
presbyters,  and  bishops,  to  play  at  dice. 

Growth  of  superstition  in  the  Church,  arising  from  the 
rapacity  of  the  clergy,  and  the  ignorance  which  generally 
prevailed.  An  opinion  was  propagated  with  industry 
among  the  people,  that  the  remission  of  sins  was  to  be 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.       127 

purchased  by  liberal  gifts  to  churches  and  monasteries, 
and  that  the  efficacious  prayers  of  departed  saints  were 
to  be  bought  by  offerings  presented  to  the  Church. 


536 


Conquests  of  Belisarius  in  Africa,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica. 
Power  of  the  Vandals  destroyed,  and  Africa  reunited  to 
the  empire  of  the  East. 
534,  Theodahat,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths. 

Kingdom   of    the    Burgundians    overthrown    by    the 
Franks. 

Justinian  pays  tribute  to  the  Bulgarians,  and  to  Persia. 


535  Theodora,   Justinian's  queen,  favours   the  Eutychians. 

By  her  influence,  Anthimus,  a  Monophysite,   was  made 
patriarch  of  Constantinople. 


Wars  of  Justinian  against  the  Ostrogoths  in  Italy  until 
553,  when  their  kingdom  is  destroyed. 

Vitiges,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths. 

Belisarius  takes  Rome,  which  remains  in  the  power  of 
the  Greeks  until  541. 

Cassiodorus,  seconded  by  Agapetus,  projects  the  found- 
ation of  a  theological  school  at  Rome,  in  which  candidates 
for  the  ministry  should  be  educated  by  paid  teachers  or 
professors.  But  the  design  was  frustrated  by  the  continu- 
ance of  war  in  Italy. 

Cassiodorus  greatly  encourages  literature  among  his 
monks ;  recommends  the  study  of  ancient  authors  as 
useful  towards  the  exposition  of  Scripture ;  introduces 
the  work  of  transcribing  as  a  monastic  employment;  en- 
joins, above  all  things,  the  reading  of  Holy  Scripture  (with 
the  best  expositors  and  no  other),  combined  with  especial 
attention  to  the  moral  instruction  contained  in  its  plain 
narrative. 

Sacred  vessels  of  the  Jews  recovered  from  the  Vandals, 
and  distributed  in  various  churches  of  Jerusalem,  by  order 
of  Justinian. 

Arians  in  Africa  lose  their  churches. 

During  this  century,  the  Christians  of  Abyssinia  afford 


128 


FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

protection  to  their  brethren  of  Arabia  Felix,  who  were 
persecuted  by  the  Jews. 


Justinian  favours  the  increase  and  security  of  Church 
property. 

The  Council  of  Clermont  sanctions  the  appointment  of 
bishops  by  the  votes  of  the  clergy  and  people,  with  consent 
of  the  metropolitan. 

536  Agapetus,  at  Constantinople  (whither  he  had  been  sent 
by  Theodahat  to  intercede  with  the  emperor  in  favour  of 
the  Ostrogoths),  refuses  to  hold  communion  with  An- 
thimus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  because  he  had  been 
translated  from  another  bishopric,  and  also  was  suspected 
of  holding  Eutychian  errors.  Anthimus  is  deposed  by  a 
council,  and  Agapetus  consecrates  Mennas,  the  new 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  em- 
peror.    The  council  condemns  Monophysite  doctrines. 

Agapetus,  in  a  synodal  letter  to  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
speaks  of  Mennas  as  made  patriarch  by  the  appointment 
of  the  emperor,  with  the  approbation  of  the  clergy  and 
people.     Agapetus  died  at  Constantinople. 

537  Silverius,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  deposed  and  banished. 
His  ruin  effected  by  the  machinations  of  Theodora  and 
Vigilius  with  the  support  of  Belisarius,  Vigilius  having 
engaged  to  annul  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon. 
and  to  support  Anthimus  and  his  party. 

538  Vigilius,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  elected  by  command  of 
Belisarius.  Some  say  that  he  fulfilled  his  promise  to  the 
queen  :  others  that  he  refused,  declaring  that,  as  vicar  of 
St.  Peter,  he  could  not  patronise  heretics  ;  and  that  here- 
upon he  was  seized  and  carried  prisoner  to  Constanti- 
nople. 

After  the  conquest  of  Rome  by  Justinian,  the  emperor 
exercises  the  right  of  confirming  the  election  of  Roman 
patriarchs,  and  of  receiving  payment  for  the  act. 


By  the  Council  of  Orleans,  Jews  are  forbidden  to  appear 
in  public  during  a  prescribed  period  at  Easter.  Thesame 
council  favours  Christian  slaves  against  Jewish  masters. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         129 

The  Monophysite  Controversy 
was  continued  by  means  of  some  Origenist  Monophysite 
monks  of  Palestine  :  they  made  progress  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Theodore  Ascidas,  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Cap- 
padocia,  who  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  emperor. 

A  Monophysite  church  was    established  in   Armenia, 
under  the  patriarchate  of  a  "  Catholic  bishop." 


Celibacy  of  the  clergy  supported  by  edicts  of  Justinian 
in  530,  536,  and  541. 

Regulations  respecting  the  punishment  of  delinquent 
clergy  made  by  the  Council  of  Orleans. 

Cassiodorus,  at  the  age  of  seventy  years,  retires  to  a 
monastery  which  he  had  founded  —  where  he  lived  twenty- 
three  years  more.  It  has  been  disputed  whether  or  not 
Cassiodorus  and  his  monks  are  to  be  reckoned  among  the 
Benedictines. 

Justinian  enacts  that  sponsors  may  not  marry  their  god- 
children, on  account  of  spiritual  relationship. 


Justinian  grants  permission  to  the  Jews  to  read  Greek 
and  Latin  translations  of  their  Scriptures,  recommending 
especially  the  Septuagint ;  but  prohibits  the  reading  of 
the  Mishna. 

Reported  conversion  of  Jews  in  Arabia  Felix. 


(540  to  545.)  War  of  Justinian  with  Chosroes,  King  of 
Persia. 

Chosroes  severely  persecutes  the  Christians  in  Persia. 
The  church  in  that  country  never  recovered  from  the 
effects  of  this  persecution. 


Totila,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  recovers  Italy. 


Justinian  confirms  the  clergy  in  the  possession  of  various 
privileges  and  immunities;  enacts  that  every  archbishop, 
patriarch,  and  metropolitan,  shall  convene  the  bishops  of 
his    province   once    or    twice   every   year;    and    forbids 

K 


130  FROM   THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL        (Second 

bishops  or  presbyters  to  excommunicate  without  sufficient 
cause. 

Further  favours  or  privileges  granted  to  Christian  slaves 
against  Jewish  masters,  by  the  fourth  Council  of  Orleans. 

About  this  time,  the  foundation  of  the  system  of  private 
patronage  in  presentation  to  ecclesiastical  benefices  is  laid 
by  an  edict  of  Justinian. 


541 


544 


Justinian,  urged  by  the  friends  of  the  Council  of  Chalce- 
don,  publishes  an  edict  condemning  the  Origenist  opinions, 
propagated  by  the  monks  of  Palestine.  A  council  at 
Constantinople  condemns  the  same  error. 

Theodore    Ascidas,    endeavouring  to    counteract    the 
plans  of  the  Chalcedonians,  resolves  to  persuade  the  em- 
peror to  condemn  certain  earlier  writers   of  the   Anti- 
origenist  or  Antiochenian  School,  proposing  this  step  as  the 
best  means  of  accomplishing  the  emperor's  favourite  object 
of  bringing  the  Monophy  sites  into  union  with  the  Catholics. 
Accordingly,  in  544,  Justinian  published  an  edict  con- 
demning the  person  and  writings  of  Theodore  of  Mopsues- 
tia,  the  writings  of  Theodoret  against  Cyril's  propositions, 
and  the  epistle  of  Ibas  to  Maris  (TriaCapitula),  notwith- 
standing that  the  orthodoxy  of  Theodoret  and  Ibas  had 
been  recognised  in  general  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon. 
This,  step,  intended  as  a  means  of  accommodation,  appeared 
to  many  as  a  measure  in  favour  of  Monophysite  doctrine. 
Hence  the  distracting  controversy  concerning  the  Tria  Capi- 
tula.     The  Eastern  Church  sided  with  the  emperor ;  the 
Western  resisted. 


545 


(Jornandes,  a  monk,  some  say  bishop  of  Ravenna,  his- 
torian of  the  Goths,  fl.). 


About  this  time,  the  councils  in  the  West  are  occupied  chiefly 
with  matters  of  ecclesiastical  discipline ;  while  those  of  the 
East  are  engaged  with  points  of  theological  controversy. 


(or  about  556.)    j  Dionysius  Exiguus,  a  Roman  abbot, 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.        131 

founder  of  the  Christian  system  of  Chronology,  and  com- 
piler of  the  Decretals. 
(  f  Tribonianus,  chief  compiler  of  the  Justinian  Code.) 


The  judicial  authority  of  the  bishops  was  increased  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Justinian,  but  without  power  over  the  per- 
sons or  property  of  offenders. 


Jacobus  Baradseus  (or  Zanzalus)  ordained  bishop  of 
Edessa  and  apostle  of  the  East  by  certain  Monophysite 
bishops.  He  furnished  the  churches  of  Syria  and  Meso- 
potamia with  presbyters  and  bishops,  and  united  the  various 
Monophysite  parties  of  those  countries  in  one  church 
(Jacobites)  under  their  own  patriarch  at  Antioch.  He 
died  a.  d.  578. 

Vigilius,  Patriarch  of  Rome  (who  had  been  appointed 
to  the  see  by  the  influence  of  Theodora,  on  condition  of 
supporting  the  Monophysite  cause)  refusing  to  concur  in 
the  sentence  of  the  edict,  is  summoned  to  Constantinople. 
Here  he  yields  to  the  influence  of  the  court,  and  unites  in 
condemning  the  Tria  Capitula  (Judicatum),  with  an  oath 
to  persevere  in  the  part  he  had  now  taken. 


*  Saxon  Heptarchy  in  England  completed. 
Rome  pillaged  by  the  Ostrogoths  under  Totila. 

Justinian  commissions  John,  Syrian  bishop  of  the 
Eutychian  or  Jacobite  party,  to  preach  for  the  conversion 
of  the  Heathen  still  remaining  in  Constantinople  and  Asia 
Minor.    John  baptizes  seven  thousand  persons. 


Council  at  Constantinople.  Many  Western  bishops 
(especially  Facundus)  oppose  the  Edict.  Vigilius  after- 
wards persuades  seventy  Western  bishops  to  subscribe  his 
Judicatum  ;  but  others  persevere  in  their  opposition,  sup- 
ported by  an  able  work  of  Facundus,  Pro  Defensione 
Trium  Capitulorum. 

k  2 


132 


FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 


549  The  Fifth  Council  of  Orleans  declares  the  consent  of  the 

sovereign  necessary  to  confirm  the  election  of  a  bishop. 


In  France,  the  princes  and  nobles  commit  frequent  de- 
predations upon  the  great  and  increasing  property  of  the 
Church. 


Dedication  of  churches  to  the  honour  of  saints. 

The  Tonsure,  which  had  already  been  adopted  by  monks, 
becomes  general  among  the  clergy  in  the  West. 

Eleemosynary  regulations  by  the  Fifth  Council  of 
Orleans. 


Fulgentius  Ferrandus  fl.     Abridgment  of  Canons. 


55®  to  556.     War  with  Persia. 


Justinian   imposes    severe   pains   and   penalties   upon 
Jews  and  Samaritans. 


The  doctrines  of  Christianity  are  now  greatly  obscured 
by  subtle  philosophy  and  vain  distinctions,  more  espe- 
cially in  the  East. 

Blind  veneration  of  the  clergy,  and  superstitious  attach- 
ment to  rites  and  ceremonies,  continually  on  the  increase, 
to  the  detriment  of  Christian  truth.  Superstition  was 
greatly  advanced ;  first,  by  the  neglect  of  sound  learning 
among  the  clergy ;  and,  secondly,  by  the  credulity  of  the 
barbarians  who  now  received  Christianity,  and  their  fond- 
ness for  the  marvellous.  But  the  clergy  had  now  become 
the  sole  depositaries  of  the  learning  of  the  age,  such  as  it 
was. 

Celibacy  of  the  Clergy, 

Canons  designed  to  check  the  marriage  of  the  clergy 
were  made  by  various  councils  during  this  century:  e.  g. 
Agde,  506;  Gironne,  517;  Toledo,  531 ;  Auvergne,  535; 
Orleans,  538,  541,  549;  Tours,  567;  Auxerre,  578  ; 
Macon,  585 ;  Toledo,  589. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.  133 

551  Vigilius  refuses  to  assent  to  a  second  edict  of  Justinian 

confirmatory  of  the  former ;  he  excommunicates  all  who 
should  defend  the  edict ;  flees  from  Constantinople,  but  is 
recalled. 

Teias,  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  defeated  by  Belisarius 
and  Narses. 

Kingdom  of  the  Ostrogoths  destroyed.  Justinian 
master  of  Italy  and  Sicily. 


Arians  in  Italy  lose  their  churches. 


Second  Council  of  Constantinople  (Fifth 
General), 
convened  for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  controversy 
connected  with  the  Tria  Capitula.  The  council  confirms 
all  the  religious  edicts  of  Justinian.  Vigilius  and  the 
Western  bishops  stand  aloof.  Vigilius  publishes  his  Con- 
stitutum,  at  variance  with  the  decrees  of  the  council; 
thrown  into  prison ;  the  following  year  revokes  his  Con- 
stitutum,  and  accedes  to  the  decrees  of  the  council.  He 
died  at  Syracuse  on  his  return  to  Rome,  555.  His  suc- 
cessor, Pelagius,  recognised  the  council ;  but  hence  arose 
differences  between  the  Church  of  Rome  and  other  Western 
churches;  and  the  object  in  view — an  accommodation 
with  the  Monophy sites  —  remained  unaccomplished. 


Justinian  stipulates  for  greater  toleration  of  Christians 
in  Persia. 

Justinian  was  distinguished  during  the  greater  part  of 
his  reign  by  his  attention  to  the  interests  of  the  Church, 
and  his  zeal  for  Orthodoxy.  But,  at  length,  he  fell 
under  suspicion  of  heresy.  He  was  influenced  by  his 
wife  Theodora,  a  woman  of  great  ability ;  formerly  an 
actress,  of  loose  character.  He  kept  the  bishops  and  clergy 
as  much  as  possible  under  his  own  power.  He  published 
numerous  edicts  relating  to  the  faith,  worship,  disci- 
pline, and  property  of  the  Church.  Next  to  Constantine 
he  was  the   chief   (temporal)    legislator  of  the   Church. 

k  3 


134  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

Baronins  censures  hirrfon  account  of  this  interference ;  and 
upbraids  him  with  having  taught  and  ruled  in  the  Church, 
instead  of  having  submitted  to  the  teaching  and  govern- 
ment of  her  ministers.  Perhaps,  however,  he  legislated 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  and 
other  bishops ;  and  certain  it  is  that  the  clergy  lost  less  by 
their  dependence  upon  him  than  they  gained  by  his 
countenance  and  support. 

>56  f  Arator,  subdeacon  in  the  Roman  Church,  a  poet. 

557  The  Council  of  Paris  enacts   that  no  bishop  shall  be 

appointed  by  royal  mandate,  or  in  any  other  way,  against 
the  will  of  the  metropolitan  and  other  bishops.  It  enforces 
ecclesiastical  discipline. 


Many  canons  for  the  protection  of  Church  property  were 
passed  during  this  century  :  by  the  council  of  Rome,  502; 
council  of  Agde,  506;  Orleans  IV,  541 ;  Orleans  V,  549; 
Paris  II,  557 ;  Tours  II,  567 ;  Valence,  584. 


558  Clotaire  I.  sole  monarch  of  the  Franks. 

The  barbarous  tribes,  now  masters  of  the  West  of  Europe 
and  great  part  of  the  South,  begin  to  amalgamate  with  the 
old  inhabitants, —  adopt  some  of  their  laws  —  agriculture  and 
other  arts  of  peace,  —  and  embrace  Christianity  ;  but  their 
credidity  and  ignorance  are  abused  by  the  superstitions  which 
had  already  been  introduced  into  the  Church,  and  their  morals 
corrupted  by  the  licentiousness  of  the  conquered  people  :  they 
introduce  some  of  their  own  barbarous  customs,  e.  g.  duelling  ; 
extinguish  or  corrupt  the  Latin  language.     Feudal  System. 

The  continued  use  of  the  Latin  language  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  Europe,  which  had  been  overrun  by  Barbarians, 
contributes  to  increase  the  influence  and  poiver  of  the  clergy. 


(Novelise.  —  The  Codex  Repetitae  Prselectionis,  Insti- 
tutions, et  Novellas,  collected  into  a  body  of  civil  law  — 
Corpus  Juris  Civilis  Romani.) 


In  Spain  the  Sueves  renounce  Arianism,  and  adopt  the 
Catholic  Faith. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         135 

Second  partition  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  between 
the  four  sons  of  Clotaire  I.  viz.  Charibert  at  Paris ; 
Gontram,  Orleans ;  Childeric,  Soissons ;  Sigibert, 
Metz. 

#  Christianity  received  amongst  the  Picts  and  Scots. 
Columba,  an  Irish  abbot,  founds  a  monastery  at  Iona ; 
(d.597).  

The  Benedictine  order  of  monks  makes  great  and  rapid 
progress,  and  threatens  to  absorb  all  others  in  the  West. 
Liturgical  regulations  by  the  Council  of  Braga. 

Laws  against  the  Priscillianists. 


Council  at  Bourdeaux,  under  Leontius,  deposes  Eme- 
rius,  whom  Clotaire  had  appointed  bishop  of  Santones  by 
royal  mandate.  Charibert  (son  of  Clotaire)  confirms  the 
appointment,  and  imposes  a  fine  upon  Leontius  and  the 
other  members  of  the  council,  as  a  punishment  for  contu- 
macy. 

Justinian,  at  the  close  of  his  life,  was  engaged  in  a 
fruitless  attempt  to  exalt  the  opinions  of  the  Aphthartodo- 
cetae  to  the  rank  of  orthodoxy. 


*  Cassiodorus,  after  56*2. 
Martin  of  Braga.     Collection  and  translation  of  the 
decrees  of  councils. 

( J  Procopius.) 


Justin  II.  Emp.  East. 


The  Monophy sites  now  begin  to  form  a  distinct  sect 

Several  minor  sects  arose  out  of  the  Monophysite  con- 
troversies. —  About  this  time,  John  Philoponus,  a  gram- 
marian of  Alexandria,  propounds  a  Tritheistic  system, 
founded  upon  an  erroneous  application  of  the  Aristotelian 
Realism  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Damian,  Mono- 
physite Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  contending  against 
Philoponus,  verges  towards   Sabellianism    (Damianites). 

K  4 


136  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

Stephen  Niobes  denied  that  there  was  any  difference  be- 
tween the  two  natures  of  Christ  after  their  union  (Nio- 
bites). 

567  Two  Gallic  bishops,  deposed  by  a  council  at  Lyons  for 

disorderly  conduct,    appeal  to    the  patriarch  of   Rome, 
who  effects  their  restoration.    They  were  afterwards  de- 
posed again  for  fresh  and  more  flagrant  misdemeanours. 
A  council  at  Tours  enacts  that  no  fees  shall  be  taken 
at  ordinations. 


Severe  edicts  against  the  Jews  renewed  by  Justin  II. 


568  Lombards,  under  Alboin,  invade  Italy,  and  erect  a  new 

kingdom  at  Ticinum  (Pavia).  Greeks  retain  Southern 
Italy  (Exarchate  of  Ravenna),  with  dukes  of  Rome  and 
Naples  dependent. 

Some  Christians  among  the  Lombards.  By  degrees 
all  the  Lombards  adopt  Arianism,  and  thus  restore  the 
ascendancy  of  that  creed  in  their  part  of  Italy. 


57O  (Mohammed  born  at  Mecca.) 

572  Justin  (in  alliance  with  Turks  from  the  river  Don)  at 

war  with  Persia. 


The  Council  of  Braga  requires  metropolitans  to  give 
early  notice  of  the  time  of  Easter.  Regulations  concern- 
ing episcopal  visitations,  fees,  and  offerings. 


Revenue  of  the  Church  very  large.  Clergy  more  and  more 
separated  from  laity.  False  and  arrogant  claims  of  the 
clergy.     Esteem  and  veneration  of  relics  continually  increase. 

Ecclesiastical  writers  are  now  occupied,  for  the  most  part, 
in  collecting  the  opinions  and  sayings  of  earlier  authors,  or  in 
allegorising. 

Ancient  superstitions  are  still  maintained,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, by  the  learning  and  eloquence  of  some  of  their  apologists, 
and  especially  by  means  of  surviving  ceremonies,  festivities, 
monuments,  and  vulgar  prejudices. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.        137 

573  Incursions  of  the  Avares  in  the  West. 


In  Gaul  many  Jews  were  compelled  by  Childebert  to 
receive  baptism. 


Tiberius  II.  Emp.  East. 
Hormisdas  V.  King  of  Persia. 
Lombards  lay  siege  to  Rome. 


j   Johannes  Scholasticus. 


Monastic  Schools. 
Colurnban  establishes  his  rule  of  monastic  discipline  in 
Ireland,  Gaul,  Germany,  and  Switzerland. 


At  the  Council  of  Macon  it  was  enacted  that  no 
Jew  should  sit  down  in  the  presence  of  a  bishop  without 
special  permission. 

The  acts  of  the  Council  of  Macon  held  this  year, 
the  first  document  in  which  the  term  archbishop  occurs, 
instead  of  metropolitan. 


Mauritius,  Emp.  East. 
John  the  Faster,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 


Visigoths  overcome  the  Sueves,  and  thus  complete  the 
conquest  of  Spain. 

Second  Council  of  Macon.  Ecclesiastical  discipline. 
Right  of  asylum  belonging  to  churches.  Marks  of  respect 
to  be  paid  to  the  clergy  on  the  highway,  under  penalty  of 
excommunication.  Baptism  to  be  administered  only  at 
Easter,  except  in  cases  of  necessity.  Payment  of  free-will 
offerings  and  tithes  demanded. 


War  between  the  Greeks  and  Lombards. 


The  Council  of  Toledo  inflicts  pains  and  penalties  upon 
the  Jens. 


138  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

Towards  the  close  of  the  century  many  Jews  embrace 
the  Gospel  in  the  West.  Gregory  the  Great  discounten- 
anced all  violent  measures  against  the  Jews,  and  all 
compulsory  baptisms;  and  admonished  the  bishops  to 
endeavour  to  convert  that  people  by  instruction  and 
persuasion. 


587 


.589 


John  the  Faster,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  assumes  the 
title  of  (Ecumenical  bishop.  Pelagius,  Patriarch  of  Rome, 
earnestly  contends  against  this  assumption. 

Gregory,  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  accused  before  a  council 
at  Constantinople,  under  John  the  Faster. 

Reccared,  King  of  the  Visigoths,  conforms  to  the 
Catholic  Church.  Final  blow  to  Arianism  among  the 
Goths. 

The  Council  of  Toledo  enacts,  that  remnants  of  idolatry 
in  Spain  and  Gallicia  be  destroyed. 

Rise  of  the  dispute  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches  concerning  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

The  difference  which  subsisted  between  the  Oriental 
and  the  Western  genius  and  turn  of  thought  (the  former 
quick,  volatile,  and  speculative ;  the  latter  more  sedate, 
settled,  and  practical),  combined  with  difference  of  cir- 
cumstances attending  the  formation  and  development  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  (the  former  continually 
fettered  and  restrained  by  imperial  interference ;  the  latter 
left  more  at  liberty  in  its  decisions),  had  already  produced 
variations  in  the  tenets  of  the  two  churches,  which,  how- 
ever, had  not  led  to  any  permanent  disunion.  But,  at 
length,  a  dispute  arose  in  connexion  with  speculations 
concerning  the  nature  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  led  to 
more  serious  results.  The  Greek  Church  always  held, 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Father  alone ; 
and  thus  the  doctrine  was  stated  in  the  Niceno- Constan- 
tinopolitan  Creed  (381).  The  Western  Church,  although 
it  received  that  Creed,  was  disposed  to  represent  the  Holy 
Ghost  as  proceeding  from  both  the  Father  and  the  Son ; 
chiefly,  perhaps,  with  a  view  to  uphold  the  doctrine  of 
the  Unity  in  Trinity,  and  to  assert  the  co-equality  of  the 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.      139 

Son  with  the  Father,  in  opposition  to  the  Arians.  At 
last,  the  Spanish  Church  made  an  addition  to  the  Creed, 
in  accordance  with  the  Western  doctrine.  In  589  the 
Council  of  Toledo  added  "  Filioque"  to  the  words  "  Sp. 
S.  qui  procedit  a  Patre."  This  step  was  regarded  by  the 
Oriental  Church  as  bold  and  dangerous,  and  immediately 
led  to  vehement  controversy. 


The  Council  of  Toledo  enacts,  that  no  clergyman  shall 
accuse  another  before  a  civil  magistrate  (a  rule  frequently 
established  by  other  councils  also).  Magistrates  to  attend 
in  ecclesiastical  councils  once  a  year,  in  order  to  receive 
admonitions  concerning  their  duties. 


Many  regulations  made  by  councils  respecting  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  clergy. 

The  Council  of  Toledo  enacts,  that  the  Nicene  Creed 
be  repeated  by  all  persons  before  communicating  in  the 
Lord's  supper  (as  a  protection  against  Arianism). 


John  Philoponus,  a  Christian  philosopher,  fl. 


Successful  war  of  the  emperor  with  Persia. 


Agilulph,  King  of  the  Lombards. 
Agilulph  was  tolerant  of  the  Catholics.     He  eventually 
embraced  the  Nicene  doctrines. 


Gregory  I.   (or  The  Great)  Pope. 


Mauritius  restores  Chosroes  II.  to  the  throne  of  Persia, 
Peace  with  Persia. 


f  Sulpicius  Severus. 


The  popes  are  now  in  possession  of  large  revenues, 
arising  from  landed  estates,  cattle,  &c.   continually  in- 


140  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL  (Second 

creased  by  presents  and  testamentary  bequests.     {Patri- 
mony of  the  Church ,  or  of  St.  Peter.) 


598 


Gregory's  Regular  Pastoralis  Liber. 


Gregory,  by  virtue  of  authority  committed  to  him  (as 
he  said)  by  God  and  St.  Peter,  exercises  jurisdiction 
over  foreign  bishops  ;  e.  g.  the  bishop  of  Thessaly,  and 
Maximus,  Bishop  of  Salona  in  Dalmatia. 


593  The  Emperor  Mauritius  forbids  certain  classes  of  his 

subjects  to  embrace  the  monastic  life.     Gregory  expos- 
tulates. 


595  t  Gregory,  Bishop  of  Tours,  historian  of  the  Franks. 

596  t  J°nn  tne  Faster.  Cyriacus,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, perseveres  in  using  the  style  of  GEcumenical  Bishop. 
Opposed  in  this  by  Gregory. 


Gregory  strenuously  opposes  the  practice  of  buying 
and  selling  ecclesiastical  offices,  which  he  denominates 
the  heresy  of  Simon  Magus,  or  Simony.  This  practice 
encouraged  by  the  French  kings. 

In  the  Epistles  of  Gregory  frequent  mention  of  Car- 
dinales  Episcopi,  Presbyteri,  Diaconi. 

Correspondents  (Apocrisiarii)  and^foocafes(Defensores) 
resident  at  the  court  of  Constantinople. 


*  Gregory  the  Great  sends  monks  into  Britain  under 
Augustin.  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  who  had  married 
Bertha,  daughter  of  Charibert,  King  of  Paris,  favourably 
disposed  towards  the  Christian  religion. 

#  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  chief  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
kings,  baptized  by  Augustin.  Christianity  generally 
embraced  in  Kent. 


Gregory,  himself  formerly  a  monk,  a  great  friend  and 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.        141 

promoter  of  monastic  life  and  institutions.  He  endeavours 
to  improve  the  state  of  monastic  discipline ;  allows  bishops 
and  other  clergy  to  be  chosen  from  among  monks ;  but 
seeks  to  prevent  the  blending  of  the  two  orders,  monastic 
and  clerical.  He  frequently  granted  to  monasteries  cer- 
tain exemptions  from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  forbade 
bishops  to  interfere  unnecessarily  in  the  affairs  of  monks. 
But  monasteries  were  still,  to  a  great  degree,  subject  to 
the  visitation  and  superintendence  of  bishops. 

Choral  singing  patronised  and  promoted  by  Gregory 
the  Great. 

Gregory  a  great  promoter  of  ceremonial  observances  in 
Christian  worship :  removed  many  old  customs ;  esta- 
blished some  new  ones.  Gregory's  Liber  Sacramentorum. 

All  worship  of  images  was  disclaimed  and  censured  by 
Gregory,  who  however  maintained  that  images  may  be 
of  use,  especially  to  the  unlearned,  as  remembrancers,  or 
incentives  to  devotion,  and  as  vehicles  of  instruction. 

In  France,  Childebert  II.  fixes  a  rate  of  fines  to  be 
levied  upon  all  persons  neglecting  the  observance  of  the 
Lord's  day. 

Gregory  required  the  clergy  to  celebrate  marriages, 
baptisms,  and  funerals,  without  fees;  but  allowed  them  to 
accept  voluntary  offerings  on  such  occasions. 

Gregory  endeavoured  to  check  the  disorders  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  lives  of  the  clergy,  arising  from  the  institu- 
tion of  celibacy.  But  he  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  the 
system  of  clerical  celibacy  itself. 


End  of  the  war  between  the  Greeks  and  Lombards. 


|  Venantius  Fortunatus,  Bishop  of  Poitiers, 'a  Christian 
poet. 

Council  at    Rome.     Rights   and  privileges  of  monks 
asserted. 

*  Augustin,  first  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  en- 
joined by  Gregory  to  appoint  twelve  bishops  under  him- 


142  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

self,  one  of  whom  (the  bishop  of  York),  after  his  death, 
and  upon  the  establishment  of  Christianity  in  his  part  of 
the  country,  should  in  like  manner  appoint  twelve  subor- 
dinate suffragan  bishops.  Probably  this  plan  was  never 
carried  into  effect. 


602  Phocas,  Emp.  East. 


*  In  a  conference  with  the  ancient  British  bishops,  who 
still  retained  the  old  Oriental  custom  of  celebrating  Easter, 
and  other  peculiar  practices,  Augustin  endeavours  to  per- 
suade them  to  conform  to  the  Roman  ritual.  He  almost 
prevails,  by  means  of  a  pretended  miracle.  But  after- 
wards, in  a  council,  they  refuse  to  comply. 


During  the  last  century,  it  was  common  for  missionaries 
among  the  Barbarians  to  report  false  prodigies,  and  even 
to  pretend  to  the  power  of  working  miracles.  The  stan- 
dard of  Christian  doctrine  which  they  taught  was  very 
low.  "  The  principal  injunctions  they  imposed  upon 
their  rude  proselytes  was,  that  they  should  get  by  heart 
certain  summaries  of  doctrine,  and  pay  to  the  images  of 
Christ  and  the  saints  the  same  religious  services  which 
they  had  formerly  offered  to  the  statues  of  their  Gods." 

Paganism  is  strangely  blended  with  Christianity  in 
many  countries.  Licences  to  sacrifice  to  heathen  gods 
are  now  sometimes  granted  by  (Christian)  magistrates, 
upon  payment  of  a  certain  fee. 


Gregory  intolerant  of  all  reputed  heretics  and  schis- 
matics. 

Avian  and  Donatist  parties  may  now  be  regarded  as  at 
an  end. 

Pelagians,  Nestorians,  Manicliceans,  still  subsist. 


Gregory  is  a  great  enemy  of  ancient  (profane)  literature, 
but  a  zealous  promoter  of  theological  schools,  and 
therein  especially  of  psalmody.     Isidore,  Bishop  of  Seville, 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first.         143 

makes  great  efforts  for  the  promotion  of  theological 
learning. 

Ancient  literature  henceforward  more  and  more  de- 
nounced as  worldly  wisdom  (literge  seculares,  sapientia 
secularis),  unprofitable,  and  even  injurious  to  Christian 
students. 

*  Gregory  the  Great, 

distinguished  by  his  practice  of  ascetic  piety,  —  his  en- 
couragement of  learning,  —  liberality  in  almsgiving, — 
and  his  endeavours  to  maintain  strict  discipline  among 
his  clergy. 

The  name  of  Gregory  the  Great  closes  the  list  of  writers 
commonly  called  Fathers  of  the  Church.  After  this  time, 
theological  literature  was  at  its  lowest  ebb.  Some  germs 
of  it,  however,  were  found  in  Ireland,  England,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  France.  The  study  of  Scripture  and  of  the 
writings  of  the  Fathers  was  prosecuted  especially  in  Irish 
monasteries,  which  became  the  seminaries  of  a  new  specu- 
lative dialectic  system  —  the  scholastic. 


Throughout  this  period,  the  bishops  and  whole  body  of 
clergy  had  been  subject  to  the  temporal  princes  and 
governors  of  their  several  countries. 


A  general  expectation  of  an  approaching  end  of  the 
world  prevails. 

Doctrine  of  Purgatory. 

Gregory  positively  asserted  the  hypothetical  doctrine  of 
Augustin  (see  409),  respecting  the  purgation  of  souls  by 
fire  after  death,  and  before  the  resurrection ;  and  esta- 
blished the  doctrine  as  an  article  of  faith. 

The  Eucharist 
During  the  first  six  centuries,  the  doctrine  concerning 
the  elements  of  the  Lord's  supper,  or  the  relation  of  the 
signs  to  the  things  signified,  was  stated  by  ecclesiastical 
writers  in  three  different  ways. — First,  the  theological 
position,  which  appears  to  have  been  the  prevalent  eccle- 


144  FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL         (Second 

siastical  notion,  represented  the  bread  and  wine  as  being 
closely  united  to  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  —  and  as 
it  were  penetrated  or  saturated  with  the  sacred  substance. 
This  idea  is  found  in  the  writings  of  Ignatius,  Justin 
Martyr,  Irenaeus,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Didymus  of  Alex- 
andria, Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Ambrose, 
Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Theodoret.  —  Secondly, 
Some  regarded  the  bread  and  wine  as  mere  signs  or  sym- 
bols, supposing  however,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  stood  in  some  sacred  and  supernatural 
relation  to  them.  The  patrons  of  this  opinion  (sometimes 
with  approximation  to  the  former)  were  Tertullian, 
Cyprian,  Athanasius,  and  Augustin.  —  Thirdly,  Others 
maintained  that  the  signs  and  things  signified  were  entirely 
distinct;  but  they  held  that  a  supernatural  sanctifying 
efficacy  attended  the  whole  celebration  of  the  rite.  The 
writers  who  adopted  this  view  (sometimes  with  a  leaning 
to  the  second  opinion)  were  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Origen,  Eusebius  of  Csesarea,  and  Gregory  Nazianzen. 

No  traces  of  the  later  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation 
are  discoverable  in  any  of  these  writers,  except  perhaps 
Gregory  of  Nyssa. 


List  of  Patriarchs  and  Popes,  from  the  Year 
325  to  604. 

325.  Alexander,  Constantinople.  triarchs  of  Constantinople  in  italics,  with- 

326.  Athanasius,  Alexandria.  out  an^ 0ther  distinction- 


356.  Felix. 
360.  Eudoxus. 
366.  Damasus. 


337.  Julius,  Rome. 
339.  Eusebius,  Constantinople. 
341.  Paul  and  Macedonius,  Con- 
stantinople, 370'  &em°PMus- 

Deposed  and  restored  in  turns  380.    Gregory  Naz. 

during  several  years.  381.   JSectariUS. 

347.  Leontius,  Antioch.  384.  Siricius. 

352.  Liberius,  Rome.  398.  Chrysostom. 

Henceforth,  in  this  list  the  names  of  ~~     ^?*^J?™  \ 

the  Bishops  ok  Rome,  or  Popes,  will  be  402.   INNOCENT  I. 

printed  in  capitals,  and  those  of  the  Pa-  404.  ArsaciUS. 


Period.)      to  the  death  of  gregorvt  the  first, 


145 


405.  Atticus. 

532.  John  II. 

417.  Zosimus  I. 

535.  Agapetus. 

419.  Boniface  I. 

—     Anthimus  I. 

422.    CCELESTINUS. 

536.   SlLVERIUS. 

426.  Sisinnius  I. 

—     Mennas. 

428.  Nestorius. 

538.  Vigilius. 

431.  Maximian. 

552.  Eutychius. 

432.  Sixtus  III. 

555.  Pelagius  I. 

434.  Proclus. 

559.  John  III. 

440.  LEO  I.  (THE  GREAT). 

565.  (John  III.  Scholasticus. 

447.  Flavian. 

Eutychius  deposed). 

449.  Anatolius. 

573.  Benedict  I. 

458.   Gennadius. 

577.  Eutychius 

461.  HILARY. 

restored. 

468.  Simplicius. 

578.  Pelagius  II. 

471.  Acacius. 

582.  John  IV.  (the  Faster). 

483.  Felix  II.  (III.). 

590.  GREGORY  I.    or    THE 

489.  Euphemius. 
492.  Gelasius  I. 

GREAT. 

496.  Anastasius  II. 

595.   Cyriacus. 

—     Macedonius. 

597.  *  Augustin 

498.  Symmachus. 

First  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

511.   Timotheus. 

Henceforth  the  names  of  these  arch- 

514. Hormisdas. 

bishops  will  be  added,  —  printed  in  Ro- 

518. John  II. 

man  letters,    with  an  asterisk  prefixed ; 

523.  John  I. 

so  that  this  list  will  contain  the  names 
of 

—     Epiphanius. 

POPES, 

526.  Felix  III. 

Patriarchs  of  Constantinople, 

530.  Boniface  II. 

*  Archbishops  of  Canterbury. 

Councils  from  the  Year  325  to  604. 


325.  Nic;ea  I.  First  General 
(against  Arius  ;  on  disci- 
pline). 

330.  Alexandria.     Carthage. 

331.  Antioch  (Arian). 

334.  Csesarea  (Arian). 

335.  Tyre.       Jerusalem    (Euse- 

bian  ;  against  Athanasius, 
and  in  favour  of  Arius). 

336.  Constantinople    (Eusebian  ; 

against     Marcellus     and 
Athanasius). 


339.  Antioch.        Constantinople 

(Arian). 

340.  Alexandria    (in    favour    of 

Athanasius). 

341.  Rome  (in  favour  of  Athan- 

asius). 

—  Antioch  (Marcellus  and 
Athanasius  again  depos- 
ed). 

343  Antioch  (by  Eusebians  ; 
fruitless  embassy  to  the 
West). 


146 


FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL 


(Second 


346.  Milan    (in    favour    of    the 

Creed  of  Nicsea). 
(344)  347.  Sardica    and    Philip- 

popolis  (by  Eusebians).         364. 

Carthage    (under     Gratus ; 

on  discipline).  366. 

Jerusalem.     Rome    (in    fa- 
vour of  Athanasius). 

Cordova  (confirming  the  de- 
crees of  Sardica).  367. 

Sirmium    I.     (against     the      369. 
doctrine  of  Photinus). 

Egypt.     Rome    (in   favour 

of  Athanasius).  370. 

Aries  (against  Athanasius). 

Antioch    (against    Athana-      372. 
sius). 

Milan      (Athanasius     again      — 
condemned).  374. 

Beziers     (Hilary     deposed 

by  Arians).  375. 

Sirmium  II.     (strict  Arian, 

or    Anomcean.     Photinus      376. 
deposed).  377. 

Antioch        (strict      Arian  ; 

under  Eudoxius  and  Aca-      378. 
cius).  379. 

Ancyra    (Homceousian     or      380. 
Semiarian ;    under     Basil      380 
of  Ancyra  and  George  of 
Laodicea).  381. 

Sirmium  III. 

Sirmium  IV.  — 

Rimini    (Western ;    against      382. 
Arius).  384. 

Seleucia    (Oriental ;    Semi- 
arian). 386. 

Constantinople  (Arian).  389. 

Paris.  391. 

—     Antioch  (Arian). 
362  &  363.    Alexandria     (under       — 

Athanasius). 
363.  Antioch      (Nicene     Creed 
adopted    by    Arian     bi- 
shops). 393. 


348. 


349. 


351. 

352. 

353. 
354. 

355. 

356. 

357. 


353. 


359. 


360 
361 


Between  347  &  380.  Gan- 
gra;  but  some  assign  an 
earlier  date. 

Lampsacus  (by  Macedo- 
nians). 

Rome  (Macedonians  adopt 
the  Nicene  Creed). 

About  this  time,  Laodicea 
(on  discipline). 

Rome.     Antioch. 

Rome  (in  favour  of  Nicene 
doctrine ;  against  Ursa- 
cius  and  Valens). 

Alexandria  (under  Athana- 
sius). 

Rome  (Auxentius  excom- 
municated). 

Antioch.     Nicopolis. 

Rome  (against  Apollinar- 
ists). 

Illyria.  Ancyra.  Nyssa. 
Rome.     Puza  in  Phrygia. 

Cyzica  (Semiarian,  &c). 

Rome  (against  Apollinar- 
ists). 

Rome  (against  Arians,  &c). 

Antioch  (Homceousian). 

Antioch. 

or  381.  Saragossa  (against 
Priscillianists). 

Constantinople  I.  Se- 
cond General. 

Aquileia  (under  Ambrose). 

Constantinople.     Rome. 

Bourdeaux  (against  Priscil- 
lianists). 

Rome  (on  discipline). 

Carthage  (on  discipline). 

Antioch.  Sida  (against  the 
Messalians). 

Capua  (under  Ambrose ; 
concerning  the  Meletian 
Schism  at  Antioch,  and 
against  Bonosus). 

Hippo      (under      Aurelius, 


Period.)      to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first. 


147 


393. 

397. 

398. 
399. 


Bishop   of  Carthage;   on      414 

discipline).  — 

Sangara  (by  Novatians  ;  ce-      415 

lebration  of  Easter). 
Byzacium  (on  discipline).  416 

Carthage  (on  discipline). 
Carthage  (on  discipline).  417 

Alexandria.  Jerusalem. 

Cyprus    (Origenist     doc-      418 

trines  condemned). 

400.  Ephesus    (under    Chrysos-      — 

torn.     Gerontius,    Bishop     419 
of  Nicomedia,  deposed). 

—  Rome    (against   the  Dona-      423 

tists).  424 

—  Toledo  I.  (communion  be-     425 

tween  Priscillianists    and 
other  bishops). 

401.  (or  between  399  and  402.) 
Turin  (dispute  between  the      430. 

Bishops    of    Vienne    and 
Aries).  431. 

—  Carthage. 

—  Milevi  (concerning  the  Do- 
natists).  434. 

Chalcedon ;     ad    Quercum 

(against  Chrysostom). 
Constantinople  (in  favour  of     435. 

Chrysostom). 
Carthage    (concerning    the 

Donatists).  440. 

Constantinople  (Chrysostom 

deposed).  441 

405.  Carthage.  442, 

407.  Carthage  (on  discipline,  &c). 

408.  Carthage.  447, 

409.  Carthage. 

410.  Carthage.  448, 

—  Seleucia  (on  discipline). 
411   Conference    with   Donatists 

at  Carthage. 
412.  Carthage    (Ccelestius    con- 
demned). 

—  Cirta    (against     the    Dona- 

tists). 


403. 


404. 


448 
449 

449 


.  Africa  (by  Donatists). 
Jerusalem  (against  Pelagius). 
Diospolis    (under   Eulogius. 
Pelagius  acquitted.) 
.  Carthage  (against  Pelagius). 

Milevi  (against  Pelagius). 
.  Carthage    (Pelagius     again 
condemned). 
Various   councils    in  Africa 

on  discipline. 
Carthage  (against  Pelagius). 
Carthage  (against  appeals  to 
Rome). 
.  Cilicia  (against  Pelagians). 
Antioch  (against  Pelagians). 
.  Carthage  (against  appeals  to 

Rome). 
.  Constantinople. 
Hippo. 
Rome.    Alexandria  (against 

Nestorius). 
Ephesus,  Third  General 
(against  Pelagius  and  Nes- 
torius). 
Edessa    (against    the    doc- 
trines    of    Theodore     of 
Mopsuestia). 
Antioch  (concerning  Theo- 
dore  of  Mopsuestia  and 
his  doctrines). 
Antioch     (Theodore     con- 
demned). 
.  Orange  (on  discipline). 
.  Vaison.     Aries    (on    disci- 
pline). 
,  Toledo  (against  Priscillian- 
ists). 
.  Antioch     (Ibas,   accused  of 
Nestorianism,  acquitted), 
f  Constantinople   (Eutyches, 
-j       charged   with     Apollon- 
L      arianism,  condemned). 
.  Ephesus  (under  Dioscurus  ; 
in    favour    of    Eutyches. 
Synod  of  Robbers). 


L  2 


148 


FROM    THE    FIRST    GENERAL    COUNCIL 


(Second 


449.  Rome  (against  the  proceed- 

ings at  Ephesus). 

450.  Constantinople  (against  Eu- 

tychian  and  Nestorian 
doctrines). 

451.  Chalcedon,   Fourth  Ge- 

neral     (against     Euty- 
chian  and  Nestorian    er- 
rors ;    on  discipline). 
—     Milan.     Aries  (against  Eu- 
tychians). 

452.  Aries  (on  discipline). 

453.  Angers  (on  discipline). 
455.  Aries. 

457.  Alexandria  (against  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon). 

465.  Rome  (on  discipline). 

471.  Antioch  (Peter  the  Fuller 
deposed). 

475.  Aries.     Lyons  (against  Lu- 

cidus,  accused  of  Pre- 
destinarianism). 

476.  Ephesus.      (under      Timo- 

theus  iElurus ;  by  the 
opponents  of  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon). 

477.  Alexandria      (against     the 

Council  of  Chalcedon). 

478.  Constantinople   (Peter    the 

Fuller  deposed). 
481.  Laodicea  (Stephen,    Patri- 
arch of  Antioch,  accused  of 
Nestorianism,  acquitted). 

484.  Rome. 

—  Conference  at  Carthage  be- 

tween Arians  and  Catho- 
lics.   (No  agreement). 

485.  Seleucia  (two  councils  con- 

cerning marriage  of  the 
clergy ;  conflicting  de- 
cisions). 

—  Rome. 

492.  Constantinople  (under  Eu- 
phemius ;  for  confirm- 
ation of  the  canons  of 
Chalcedon). 


495.  Rome. 

496.  Constantinople  (Euphemius 

deposed  and  excommu- 
nicated). 
—  Rome  (canon  of  Scripture). 
Several  councils  in  Asia 
about  this  time  in  favour  of 
the  marriage  of  the  clergy. 

499.  Rome. 

500.  Lyons  (conference  between 

Catholics  and  Arians.) 

501.  Rome  (concerning  the  dis- 

pute between  Symmachus 
and  Laurentius). 

502.  Rome ;    Synodus  Palmaris 

(in  favour  of  Symmachus). 
504.  Rome  (Church  property). 
506.  Agde  (on  discipline). 
509.  Antioch. 

511.  Orleans  (on  discipline). 

—  Sidon    (against  the  Coun- 

cil of  Chalcedon). 

512.  Antioch  (Severus  made  pa- 

triarch). 
516.  Constantinople  (against  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon). 

516.  Tarragona  (on  discipline). 

517.  Epaonum  (on  discipline). 

—  Lyons  (on  discipline). 

518.  Constantinople   (Council  of 

Chalcedon  confirmed.  Se- 
verus condemned). 

—  Jerusalem.      Tyre      (Con- 

firming the  decrees  of  the 
preceding  council). 

519.  In  Wales  (David  made  arch- 

bishop). 

520.  Constantinople  (Epiphanius 

made  patriarch). 

524.  Lerida. 

—  Valentia. 

—  Aries  (on  discipline). 

525.  Carthage. 

527.  Toledo  (on  discipline). 
529.  Orange    (against  Semipela- 
gian  doctrines). 


Period.)       to  the  death  of  Gregory  the  first 


149 


529. 
530, 
533. 
534. 
535. 


536. 


538. 
540. 
541. 

542. 
543. 

546. 
546. 
548. 

549, 


553. 


554. 
556. 


Vaison  (on  discipline).  557. 

531.  Rome.  560, 

Orleans  (on  discipline). 

Rome. 

Carthage.  563. 

Clermont  in  Auvergne  (on 

discipline).  566. 

Constantinople  (against  Se-  567. 

verus  and  Anthimus).  572. 

Jerusalem  (confirmatory  of  576. 

the  preceding  council).  580. 
Orleans  (on  discipline). 

Orleans  (on  discipline).  581. 

Orleans  (on  discipline).  — 
Byzacena  (on  discipline). 

Antioch(againstOrigenists).  582. 

Constantinople         (against  583. 

Origenists).  585. 
Lerida  (on  discipline). 

Valentia  (on  discipline).  5S6. 
Constantinople  (against  the 

Tria  Capitula).  588. 
550.  In  Illyria  and  at  Car- 
thage  (in  support  of  the  589. 

Tria  Capitula).  — 

Constantinople  II.    the  590. 

Fifth  General  (against  592. 

the     opinions  of  Origen 

and  the  Tria  Capitula). 

Jerusalem   (confirming   the  595. 

decrees  of  the  preceding  597. 

council).  598. 

Aries  (on  discipline.)  599. 

Aquileia  (against    the   de-  601. 

crees  of  the  last  general 

council). 


Paris  (Church  property). 

*  LlandafF  (native  princes 
excommunicated  for  mur- 
der). 

Braga  (against  Arians  and 
Priscillianists). 

Lyons  (on  discipline). 

Tours  (on  discipline). 

Braga  (on  discipline). 

Seleucia  (on  discipline). 

Braine  (in  favour  of  Gregory 
of  Tours). 

Alexandria  (on  discipline). 

Toledo  (re-baptism  of 
Arians). 

Macon  (on  discipline). 

Lyons  (on  discipline). 

Macon  (observance  of  the 
Lord's  day,  &c). 

Auxerre  (confirmatory  of 
the  foregoing). 

Constantinople  (in  favour  of 
Gregory  of  Antioch). 

Toledo  (Arianism  abjured). 

Narbonne  (on  discipline). 

Seville  (on  discipline). 

Saragossa  (concerning 

Arians  conforming  to  the 
Catholic  faith). 

Rome  (on  discipline). 

Toledo  (on  discipline). 

Huesca  (on  discipline). 

Barcelona  (on  discipline). 

Sens  (reformation  of  man- 
ners, &c). 


END    OF    THE    SECOND    PERIOD. 


L    3 


PERIOD  III 


FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  GREGORY  THE  FIRST  TO  THE 
DEATH  OF  CHARLEMAGNE. 


604 


606 


604—814. 


(Phocas,  Emp.  East.) 

Goar,  a  French  hermit,  propagates  the  Gospel  on  the 
Rhine,  where  it  had  been  nearly  exterminated  by  the 
incursions  of  Barbarians. 

N.B.  Germany  received  the  Gospel  first  from  the 
Romans,  —  then  from  Gaul,  —  and  afterwards,  more  es- 
pecially, from  the  British  Islands.  About  this  time,  monks 
from  England  and  Ireland  greatly  contribute  to  the  pro- 
pagation of  Christianity  in  that  country.  Columban. 
Gallus. 

*  Christianity  embraced  in  Essex. 

Columban,  driven  from  Germany  by  the  opposition  of 
the  nobles,  removes  to  Switzerland  ;  whence  he  was  after- 
wards obliged  to  retire. 

Gallus  (St.  Gall)  propagates  Christianity  in  Switzer- 
land and  Suabia. 


*  Heathen  temples  in  Britain  turned  into  churches  ; 
ancient  pagan  rites  and  ceremonies  retained,  and  christ- 
ianized, as  far  as  possible,  among  the  Anglo  Saxons. 

*  Augustin,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  laboured  to 
induce  the  British  churches  to  conform  and  submit  to 
Rome.  His  attempts  were  resisted  ;  whereupon  he  en- 
deavoured to  force  a  compliance. 


Third  Period.)     from  the  death  of  Gregory,  etc.  151 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Gregory,  a  superstitious  use  of 
pictures  and  images  became  prevalent  in  the  West,  and  was 
sanctioned  by  the  heads  of  the  Church.  The  Gallican 
Church,  however,  adhered  rather  to  the  principles  of 
Gregory. 

Phocas  concedes  to  Boniface  III.  the  primacy  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  declaring  it  the  head  of  all  churches, 
not  excepting  even  that  of  Constantinople.  But  the  pope 
does  not  exercise  unlimited  dominion  over  the  whole 
Church  during  this  century.  Eastern  and  *  British 
Churches  do  not  acknowledge  the  primacy  of  Rome.  But 
some  say  that  the  supremacy  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  was 
acknowledged  in  England  at  this  time. 


618 


Theodorus,  a  presbyter,  asserts  the  genuineness  of  the 
pretended  works  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  These 
works  acquire  great  credit  in  the  East,  and  contribute  to 
the  growth  of  a  contemplative  or  mystical  theology  during 
this  century. 

Heraclius,  Emp.  East. 


f  Moschus,  monastic  historian. 


Mohammed  begins  to  propagate  his  doctrines  at  Mecca. 

The  Avares  conquer  Istria.  The  Persians  masters  of 
Syria  and  Cappadocia;  and  afterwards  of  Palestine  and 
Egypt.  

Boniface  IV.  established  a  festival  in  honour  of  All 
Martyrs  (whence  came  afterwards  the  Festival  of  All 
Saints). 

Clotaire  II.  sole  monarch  of  France. 


*  Slaughter  of  twelve  hundred  monks  of  Bangor  by 
Ethelred,  King  of  Northumberland,  in  consequence  of 
their  resistance  to  papal  dominion,  and  the  introduction 
of  Romish  ceremonies.  (Some  suppose  that  this  massacre 
took  place  at  the  instigation  of  Augustin  or  Ethelbert). 

L  4 


152  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST       {Third 

615  Columban  died  in  a  monastery  which  he  had  founded 

at  Bobium,  in  a  valley  of  the  Pennine  Alps  in  Liguria. 


620 


622 
625 


627 

628 


The  Benedictine  monks  and  others  are  now  zealously 
employed  in  propagating  the  doctrine  of  Purgatory. 


*  Westminster  Abbey    (St.  Peter's   and    St.  Paul's) 
founded. 

The    ecclesiastical   literature    of  this    period    consists 
chiefly  of 

Catence  Patrum, 

Vitce  Sanctorum, 

Ijibri  de  Divinis  Officiis. 


Many  churches  were  built  about  this  time. 
Bells  begin  to  be  applied  to  ecclesiastical  uses. 


Flight  of  Mohammed.     Hegira. 


Successes  of  Heraclius  against  the  Persians. 


Monothelite  Controversy. 
Disputes  between  the  Catholics  and  Monophysites  con- 
tinue. Heraclius,  desirous  of  effecting  an  union  between 
the  two  parties,  listens  to  a  suggestion  that  such  union 
might  take  place  if  no  mention  were  made  of  one  or 
two  natures  in  Christ,  but  it  were  simply  asserted  that 
there  is  in  him  only  one  will  and  mode  of  operation  : 
such  was  the  origin  of  the  Monothelite  controversy. 


#  Christianity  received  in  Northumbria. 


Dagobert,  King  of  France. 


*    The  British  churches  refuse  to  submit  to  the  au- 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Charlemagne.       153 

thority  of  the  pope,  Honorius,  in  the  matter  of  the  Paschal 
controversy. 

630  Mohammed  captures  Mecca. 

Croatian s  converted  to  Christianity. 


631  *  The  East  Angles  christianized 


63$  Death  of  Mohammed.    The  false  prophet  leaves  Arabia 

under  the  dominion  of  the  Caliphs.     Abu  Beker,  first 
Caliph,  compiles  the  Koran. 


683  t  Isidore,  Bishop  of  Seville. 

Monothelite  Controversy. 

Cyrus,  Catholic  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  declares,  in 
accordance  with  the  emperor's  views,  that  Christ,  as  God 
and  man  in  one  person,  wrought  all  his  works  by  one 
divine-human  mode  of  operation  (p!a  ScavSfjxj?  kvepyelat.), 

Sophronius,  a  monk  of  Palestine,  residing  at  Alexandria, 
protests  against  the  declaration  of  Cyrus,  as  favouring 
Monophysite  doctrines,  and  maintains  that  the  two  na- 
tures of  Christ  imply  two  corresponding  modes  of  ope- 
ration. 

Sergius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  advises  Cyrus  to 
let  the  matter  rest,  as  being  attended  with  difficulties  on 
both  sides. 

634  The  Pope,  Honorius,  gives  his  opinion  in  favour  of 

Cyrus.  He  regards  the  whole  question  as  one  of  idle 
speculation,  but  considers  the  doctrine  of  two  wills  parti- 
cularly dangerous.  He  incurs  the  condemnation  of 
councils  by  his  toleration  of  Monothelite  doctrines. 

Sophronius,  nowPatriarch  of  Jerusalem,  protests  against 
Monothelite  doctrines,  and  contends  that  the  doctrine  of 
two  wills  in  Christ  does  not  imply  any  opposition  between 
his  divine  and  human  nature. 


Omar,  second  Caliph,  pursues  the  victories  of  Moham- 
med. 


154  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST     [Third 


634 
635 


637 
638 


639 
640 


641 


#■   Christianity  embraced  in  Wessex. 


About  this  time  a  revised  edition  of  the  Dionysian  Col- 
lection of  Canons  was  published,  under  the  name  of  Isidore 
of  Seville.  Several  editions  of  the  canons  and  decretals 
were  from  time  to  time  published,  having  the  Dionysian 
collection  for  their  basis. 


Nestorian  Christians  preach  the  Gospel  among  the 
Tartars  ;  perhaps,  also,  their  labours  extended  to  China. 
The  followers  of  Mohammed  begin  to  make  inroads 
upon  the  Christian  churches  in  the  East.  In  many 
countries  the  doctrines  of  the  false  prophet  supersede  the 
religion  of  the  Gospel  (as  it  was  then  professed)  before 
the  close  of  the  century. 

Jerusalem  in  the  hands  of  the  Caliphs. 
Antioch,  and  all  Syria,  under  the  Caliphs. 


The  kingdom  of  France  again  divided.     Power  of  the 
mayors  of  the  palace  established. 


Heraclius  publishes  an  edict  —  "  Exposition  of  the 
Faith" — in  order  to  suppress  the  Monothelite  contro- 
versy. Edict  received  at  Constantinople  by  councils  un- 
der Sergius  and  Paulus  (638,  639).  The  two  patriarchs 
of  Rome,  Severinus  and  John  IV.,  protest  against  the 
edict  as  favouring  Monothelitic  views. 


Mesopotamia  in  the  hands  of  the  Mohammedans. 

Alexandria,  and  all  Egypt,  in  their  power. 

*   Mercia  receives  Christianity. 


CONSTANTINE III,  IlERACLEONAS,  then  CONSTANS  II, 

Emp.  East,  to  668. 
During  this  reign  the  empire  rapidly  declined.     Con- 
stans  purchased  the  retreat  of  the  Saracens  from  Constan- 
tinople.   

Gradual  growth  of  episcopal  power  in  the  West,  and  espe- 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Charlemagne.  J  55 

daily  of  the  authority  of  the  bishop    of  Rome,   after  the 
abolition  of  metropolitan  influence. 

Theodore  assumes  the  title  of 
Sovereign  Pontiff. 


644 
646 


467 
648 


Othman,  Caliph. 


(al.  648.)  Theodore, Patriarch  of  Rome,  excommunicates 
Cyrrhus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  as  a  Monothelite. 
Edict  not  universally  received  in  the  East.  Maximus 
strenuously  defends  Dyothelite  doctrines.  (Theodore 
wrote  his  anathema  with  sacramental  wine.) 


Saracens  make  conquests  in  Africa. 
—  650.  Cyprus  and  Rhodes  subdued  by  the  Saracens. 
*  Christianity  had  now  made  great  progress  among  the 
Anglo  Saxons. 

Constans  publishes  a  newedict — "  Form  of  the  Faith," 
— forbidding  all  persons  to  raise  the  question  concerning 
one  or  two  natures  in  Christ,  and  commanding  all  to  abide 
by  the  doctrine  of  the  Fathers,  and  not  to  charge  each 
other  with  heresy.  Unwelcome  to  the  Catholics,  as  secretly 
favouring  Monophysite  or  Monothelite  tenets,  or  as  an 
indication  of  gross  latitudinarianism  or  indifference. 
ie  The  Exposition  "  revoked. 
649  Martin,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  rejects  the  edict  of  Con- 

stans. Holds  a  council  in  the  Lateran  Church  at  Rome 
(First  Lateran  Council),  which  confirms  the  Dyothelite 
doctrine,  pronounces  an  anathema  against  the  opposite 
system  of  belief,  its  patrons,  the  patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  the  two  imperial  edicts. 


Clerical  celibacy  is  now  strictly  enforced. 


Arabian  Schools. 


Expositors  of  Scripture  are  now  few,  and  their  works 
are  of  a  very  inferior  kind. 


156 


FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST       (Third 


650  Paulicians. 

Gnostic  sects,  as  such,  are  now  no  longer  found.  But  in 
this  century  the  sect  of  the  Paulicians  maintained  Gnostico- 
Manichaean  opinions  (chiefly  Marcionite),  in  combination 
with  a  deeply  religious  or  mystical  sentiment,  opposed  to 
ceremonial  observances  of  the  dominant  Church.  It  was 
their  professed  object  to  restore  apostolic  institutions  and 
discipline  in  their  churches,  and  especially  to  follow  the 
rules  and  examples  of  St.  Paul ;  whence  probably  their 
name.  Photius  says  that  the  sect  originated  with  two 
brothers,  Paul  and  John,  of  Samosata,  who  flourished 
about  650.  Soon  after  that  date,  Constantine  (called 
Sylvanus)  was  at  the  head  of  an  establishment  of  this 
sect  at  Cibossa  in  Armenia. 


During  this  age  Christian  doctrine  became  more  and  more 
obscured  by  "prevailing  superstition  and  ignorance.  Fables 
and  errors  relating  to  purgatory,  demonology,  and  the 
authority  of  the  pope,  were  exalted  into  articles  of  faith, 
and  confirmed  by  fictitious  miracles. 

Strenuous  asserters  of  great  truths,  in  opposition  to  the 
tide  of  error  and  false  doctrine,  were  not  altogether 
wanting. 


Concerning  rites  and  ceremonies  about  this  period,  the 
following  particulars  are  worthy  of  note :  — 

1.  A  long  and  even  sanguinary  struggle  in  England 
concerning  the  celebration  of  Easter. 

2.  A  dispute  in  England  concerning  the  threefold  ton- 
sure of  St.  Peter,  St.  Paul,  and  Simon  the  Sorcerer. 

3.  The  introduction  of  bells. 

4.  The  prevalence  of  the  Latin  language  in  the  offices 
of  divine  worship,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  vernacular 
tongues. 

The  festival  of  All  Martyrs  in  Italy, — of  the  Ascension 
in  the  Greek  Church,  —  and  the  Elevation  of  the  Cross. 
The  system  of  so-called  spiritual  relationship. 
The  celebration  of  private  masses. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  charlemagne.      157 

The  excessive  extension  of  rights  of  asylum  already 
granted  to  churches. 

651  Persia  completely  in  the  power  of  the  Saracens. 

Emmeran  spreads  Christianity  in  Bavaria. 


653  The  emperor  proceeds  against  Martin  and  Maximus 

Confessor  as  guilty  of  high  treason.  Martin  made  pri- 
soner, taken  to  Constantinople,  deposed,  and  banished, 
together  with  Maximus. 

The  Western  Church  had  now  broken  off  communion 
with  the  Eastern,  which  inclined  for  the  most  part  to 
Monothelite  doctrines.  The  Dyothelite  system  of  the 
West  eventually  prevailed  also  in  the  East. 


Many  severe  persecutions  and  forced  conversions  of 
the  Jeivs  in  Spain,  until  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Visigoths. 

655  Ali,  Caliph.     Dissensions  among  the  Saracens. 


In  the  East,  the  civil  power  is  supreme,  and  the  ecclesias- 
tical subordinate.  In  the  West,  the  influence  and  authority 
of  the  Church  predominate. 

The  patriarch  of  Rome  now  lays  claim  to  the  exclusive 
appellation  of  Pope,  which  had  been  gradually  conceded 
to  him. 

The  possessions  of  the  Church,  having  been  continually 
enlarged  by  the  donations  of  princes,  and  the  benefactions  of 
charitable  individuals,  are  now  very  extensive. 


The  earlier  sects  and  parties  had  now  been,  for  the 
most  part,  overborne  and  suppressed.  But  the  Nestorians 
and  Eutychians  subsisted  in  the  Eastern  provinces,  and 
enjoyed  liberty  of  conscience  under  the  Mohammedan 
conquerors  of  those  regions. 


661         Moawiah,  first  of  the  Ommiyade  Caliphs,  at  Damascus. 


158  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST     [Third 

661  t  Udefonsus,  Bishop  of  Toledo. 


662  Grimoald,  King  of  the  Lombards,  makes  inroads  upon 

Lower  Italy. 

}  Maximus  Confessor,  Byzantine  secretary  of  state, 
and  afterwards  a  monk.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on 
the  pretended  works  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  and 
introduced  into  the  East  a  compound  system  of  theology, 
dialectic  and  mystical. 


663  The  Pope  does  homage  to  the  emperor  at  Rome. 


Exclusive  use  of  the  Latin  language  in  the  offices  of 
divine  worship  enjoined. 


664;  *  In  the  Council  of  Whitby,  the  question  concerning 

the  time  of  observing  Easter  in  Great  Britain  was  decided 
in  favour  of  the  Roman  method. 

*  Various  seminaries   of  religious  learning  in    Great 
Britain.  

668  CONSTANTINE   XIV.    (POGONATUs)    EMP.   BAST. 


*  Theodore  consecrated  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
on  the  nomination  of  the  pope  (Vitalian).  Theodore  was 
a  native  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia.  He  was  a  patron  of  theolo- 
gical learning.  

669  — 676.  The  Saracens  besiege  Constantinople  during  the 
summers  of  seven  successive  years.  The  city  saved  by 
the  Greek  fire.  

670  Grimoald,  King  of  the  Lombards,  renounces  Arianism, 
and  conforms  to  the  Catholic  Church. 


Mention    of   the  Athanasian    Creed,    at  Autun,   this 
year.  

6j5  The  Council  of  Toledo  enacts  canons  against  Simony, 

and  enforcing  the  study  of  Scripture  among  the  clergy. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  charlemagne.  159 

*  Use  of  the  Latin  language  in  divine  worship  gra- 
dually established  in  England. 

*  In  England,  Theodore,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
promotes  the  establishment  of  parish  churches,  and  gives 
the  right  of  patronage  to  the  founders. 

*  It  is  supposed  that  the  payment  of  tithes  was  es- 
tablished in  Britain  at  the  period  of  the  conversion  of 
the  Anglo  Saxons.  The  custom  may  have  been  intro- 
duced by  Augustin. 

Superstition  continually  increases,  and  vice  abounds 
more  and  more,  especially  among  the  clergy. 

The  monastic  orders  of  the  West  begin  to  be  peculiarly 
attached  to  the  see  of  Rome,  partly  perhaps  as  a  means 
of  escaping  the  more  immediate  authority  of  their  lawful 
superiors  —  the  local  bishops. 

*  Wilfrid,  Archbishop  of  York  (i.  e.  of  all  Northum- 
bria),  resists  the  attempt  of  Theodore  to  divide  his 
bishopric,  and  appeals  to  the  pope.  The  pope  decides 
in  his  favour ;  but  he  was  deprived  and  imprisoned  by 
Egfred.  He  was  afterwards  successively  reinstated,  and 
deposed,  and  reinstated  again.  The  Saxon  kings  resisted 
the  undue  interference  of  Rome. 

N.B.  At  this  time  a  certain  deference  was  paid  to  the 
decisions  of  Rome,  and  precedence  was  conceded  to  it  as 
an  elder  church.  But  the  Saxon  kings  did  not  yield  to 
the  pope  ecclesiastical  power  within  their  dominions. 
Rome  had  not  yet  obtained  spiritual  supremacy  in  Bri- 
tain.   

*  Christianity  received  in  Sussex. 
■$■   Conversion  of  the  Heptarchy  complete. 


The   Eastern   Church  has  now  made   a  collection  of 
canon  laws. 


The  Bulgarians  establish  a  kingdom  between  the 
Danube  and  the  Balkan.  (This  became  a  Greek  pro- 
vince in  1018.) 


160  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST       (Third 

680  Constantine  Pogonatus,  in  order  to  settle  the  differences 

between  the   Eastern   and  Western  Churches,  convenes 
the 

Council  of  Constantinople  (Sixth  General). 

The  Council  decides  in  favour  of  Dyothelitic  doctrines. 
George,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  abandons  the  Mo- 
nothelitic  party ;  Macarius,  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  perse- 
vering in  his  attachment  to  that  cause,  is  deposed.  All 
Monothelites,  including  Honorius,  former  Bishop  of  Rome, 
anathematized. 

The  council,  by  its  decrees,  demands  the  acknowledg- 
ment of  two  wills  and  modes  of  operation  in  Christ, 
corresponding  to  His  two  natures,  without  division  and 
opposition,  and  without  confusion,  the  human  will  being 
always  subordinate  to  that  which  is  divine  and  almighty. 


The  Paulicians  suffer  persecution.  Constantine,  their 
leader,  is  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  emperor.  Soon 
afterwards,  Simeon,  who  was  employed  in  the  execution 
of  the  sentence,  became  a  convert  to  their  opinions,  and 
was  recognised  as  a  leader  of  the  sect,  under  the  name  of 
Titus. 

*  Laws  relating  to  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  were  nomi- 
nally in  force  in  the  Anglo  Saxon  Church,  at  a  very  early 
period  of  its  history. 

682  Vamba,   King  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  deposed  by 

the  Council  of  Toledo. 


Leo  usurps  the  right  of  Investiture. 


535  Justinian  II.  Emp.  East. 

Abdul-Melech,  Caliph, 
(remarkable  for  his  hostility  to  Christianity). 


to  695.  Fresh  persecution  of  the  Paulicians.     Simeon 
and  others  put  to  death. 


Period,)  to  the  death  of  charlemagne.  161 

686  |  Anastasius,  a  monk  of  Mount  Sinai. 


Pepin  d'  Heristal,   Mayor  of  the  Palace,   ruler  of  all 
France.     The  French  kings  are  now  mere  ciphers. 


Kilian  preaches  among  the  Franks. 
Willibrod  preaches  in  Holland  and  Friesland. 


The  Trullan  Council  (at  Constantinople)  completes  the 
fifth  and  sixth  general  councils  by  some  canons  relating 
to  the  government  and  constitution  of  the  Church.  ( Hence 
called  Quinisextum.) 

Celibacy  of  Bishops  enjoined  in  the  Eastern  Church. 

The  Trullan  Council  decrees  that  married  bishops 
shall  separate  from  their  wives ;  but  allows  all  other  orders 
of  clergy  to  retain  them.  The  contrary  enactment  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  censured. 

It  is  probable  that  the  ivorship  of  images  had  now 
prevailed  to  a  very  considerable  extent. 

Restoration  of  discipline  attempted  by  means  of  Peni- 
tentiaries, canons  of  councils  having  been  found  inef- 
fectual. 

Erroneous  views  respecting  the  effects  of  excommuni- 
cation, and  abuses  in  connection  with  satisfaction  and 
penance,  have  now  gained  ground.  No  trace  of  Indul- 
gences. 

Justinian  deposed. 
Leontius,  Emp.  East. 
$  Adamnan,  Abbot  of  Hy  in  Scotland,   conforms  to 
the  customs  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 


Rupert,  Bishop  of  Worms,  baptizes  Theodo  II.  Duke 
of  Bavaria;  and  labours  successfully  for  the  establishment 
of  Christianity  in  that  country.     He  died  in  718. 

Willibrod,  an  English  monk  and  presbyter,  who  had 
successfully  laboured  for  the  propagation  of  Christianity 
in  Franconian  Friesland,  and  founded  the  archbishopric 

M 


162  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST     {Third 

of  Utrecht,  was   this   year   consecrated    archbishop    at 
Rome,  under  the  name  of  Clemens. 
697  Carthage  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens. 

Christians  in  China  (where  the  Gospel  had  probably 
been  preached  during  the  early  centuries)  persecuted. 
They  were  tolerated  again  in  course  of  the  next  century. 


Election  of  a  chief  at  Venice,  with  the  title  of  Doge  or 
Duke. 
698  Leontius  deposed. 

Tiberius  III.  Emp.  East. 


Cen 

TURY. 


End  of  The  emperors  and  kings  of  Spain,  France,  England, 
g™  and  Italy,  continue  to  assert  and  exercise  their  rights  in 
venth  ecclesiastical  matters,  and  maintain  them  against  attempted 
encroachments  on  the  part  of  Roman  patriarchs. 

The  patriarchs  of  Rome  continue  to  acknowledge  the 
supremacy  of  the  emperor. 

They  still  send  their  confession  of  faith  to  other  patri- 
archs, and  even  confirm  it  with  an  oath,  on  coming  to  the 
see. 

Their  election  is  confirmed  by  the  emperor,  or  the 
exarch  of  Ravenna. 

They  extend  their  influence  by  sending  the  archiepis- 
copal  pall  to  foreign  prelates ;  a  present  which,  conveyed 
through  the  hands  of  monks,  tends  also  to  increase  the 
importance  of  that  order,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  bishops. 

Councils, 

During  this  century,  were  for  the  most  part  convened, 
and  their  acts  were  confirmed,  by  temporal  princes. 

They  sometimes  proceeded  to  condemn  even  the  patri- 
arch of  Rome. 

Their  numerous  regulations  and  enactments  were  de- 
trimental to  Christian  morality. 

They  often  contradicted  each  other. 

Ceremonies  to  be  observed  on  occasion  of  their  assem- 
bling were  made  the  subject  of  express  laws  and  regulations. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  charlemagne.  1G3 

End  of        Some  special  endowments  of  tithes  were  probably  made 

THE  p 

Se-      before  the  end  of  this  century. 

7Q^Lm  Many  good  laws  and  regulations  were  made  during 
tury.  this  century,  concerning  the  election  and  appointment  of 
clergy;  but  they  were  frequently  neglected. 

We  now  find  frequent  mention  of  the  following  eccle- 
siastical officers,  whose  origin,  however,  may  be  traced  to 
an  earlier  (but  uncertain)  date :  —  Syncelli  and  Proto- 
syncelli;   Scenophylaces ;  Chartophylaces ;  Apocrisiarii. 


The  great  controversies  with  Jews,  Heathen,  and  false 
teachers,  still  employ  the  pens  of  some  writers.  The 
custom  of  discussing  frivolous  questions  and  subtleties  is 
also  introduced  into  Christian  polemics. 


Great  corruption  of  morals  among  Christians  continues 
to  prevail.  The  penitentiary  books,  first  introduced  by 
Theodore,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  are  supposed  to 
have  increased  this  demoralisation  in  the  West. 

But  the  age  is  not  without  proofs  of  the  exercise  of 
practical  religion. 

Monachism  in  great  repute, 
partly  from  the  circumstance  that  many  of  the  first 
preachers  of  Christianity  among  the  barbarous  tribes  were 
monks,  and  partly  in  consequence  of  the  advantageous 
contrast  between  the  lives  and  morals  of  the  monks  and 
those  of  the  more  dissipated  clergy. 

Various  privileges  were  granted  to  monasteries,  but 
without  exemption  from  episcopal  jurisdiction. 


A  large  part  of  Christendom,  especially  in  the  East,  was 
now  overspread  by  the  propagators  and  adherents  of  a  false 
religion.  This  may  be  regarded  as  a  divine  chastisement  for 
the  sins  of  the  Church,  in  which  genuine  Christianity  had 
declined  to  a  fearful  extent.  But  now  also  the  religion  of  the 
Gospeljinds  entrance  among  many  uncivilised  tribes  and  na- 
tions in  the  West,  mingled  at  first  with  error  and  superstition, 

m  2 


164  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST     (Third 

End  of   but  destined  to  be  by  those  nations  preserved,  gradually 
purified,  and  propagated  throughout  the  world. 


THE 

Se- 
venth 
Cen- 
tury. 


Maronites. 
The  remnant  of  the  Monothelites  now  form  a  distinct 
sect.  They  occupy  a  monastery  near  Mount  Lebanon, 
where  they  maintain  their  independence  and  the  profes- 
sion of  their  faith  until  the  time  of  the  Crusades.  Their 
first  patriarch  was  John  Maro.  Hence  they  were  called 
Maronites.  In  the  twelfth  century  these  Maronites  were 
induced  to  conform  to  the  creed  of  the  Romish  Church. 


#  Aldhelm,  Abbot  of  Malmsbury,  writes  against  the 
celebration  of  Easter  according  to  the  ancient  British 
custom. 


705  Justinian  III.  Emp.  East, 

restored. 


706  Armenia  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens. 


■#■  Saxon  translation  of  the  Psalms  by  Aldhelm. 


7O7  The  whole  of  North  Africa  is  now  in  the  power  of  the 

Saracens. 

709  *  t  Aldhelm,  Bishop  of  Sherborne. 


710  Naiton,  King  of  the  Picts,  renounces  the  ancient  cus- 

toms of  his  church,  and  conforms  to  the  Church  of  Rome. 


Philippic  us,  Emp.  East. 

711  First  invasion  of  Europe  by  the  Caliphs. 
Spain  in  the  power  of  the  Saracens. 

712  Roderic  killed  at  Xeres.     End  of  the  Gothic  monarchy 
in  Spain.      Spain  under  the  power  of  the  Caliphs. 

Luitprand,  King  of  the  Lombards. 


The  Emperor,  Philippicus  Bardanes,  makes  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  restore  the  ascendancy  of  Monothelite 
doctrines. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  charlemagne.       165 

Anastasius  II.  Emp.  East. 
(714.)  f  Pepin  d'Heristal. 
The  Spanish  Christians  (Mozarabes)  recover  their  re- 
ligious liberty. 

(Saracens  generally  concede  to  Christians  the  exercise 
of  their  worship  in  the  conquered  countries.) 

Charles  Martel,  Mayor  of  the  Palace;  master  of  all 
France  (718). 

Winfried  (Boniface,  the  Apostle  of  Germany)  under- 
takes his  first  missionary  journey  for  the  conversion  of  the 
Frisons,  but  without  success. 


Theodosius  III.  Emp.  East. 


*  Bede  contributes  to  the  increase  of  theological  learn- 
ing in  England. 

Leo  III.  (Isauricus)  Emp.  East. 
and  718.   Saracens  besiege  Constantinople. 
Desolating  contests  between  the  Mohammedan  chiefs  in 
Spain. 

The  emperor  (Leo  the  Isaurian)  favours  the  Paulicians, 
as  enemies  of  superstition  and  image- worship.  He  caused 
their  leader  Gegnasius  to  be  heard  in  defence  of  their 
opinions  at  Constantinople. 

The  power  of  Charles  Martel  was  favourable  to  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianity  among  the  conquered  people. 

Winfried,  convinced  of  the  supreme  authority  of  the 
Romish  see,  and  of  the  impossibility  of  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  a  church  securely  without  adherence  to  it,  goes  to 
Rome,  and  receives  authority  from  Gregory  XI.  to  preach 
the  Gospel  in  Germany.  He  afterwards  assisted  Willi- 
brod,  Bishop  of  Utrecht,  three  years. 


The  Council  of  Rome  enacts  canons  against  the  mar- 
riage of  the  clergy.  It  defines  the  degrees  of  consan- 
guinity within  which  marriage  is  prohibited. 

M  3 


166  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST     (Third 

721         *  Saxon  translation  of  the  four  Gospels,  by  Egbert. 


722 
7^3 


726 


728 
730 


Winfried  preaches  in  Thuringia  and  Hesse. 

Winfried  at  Rome,  —  consecrated  archbishop,  under  the 
name  of  Boniface.  —  Convinced  of  the  necessity  of  en- 
gaging the  secular  power  on  his  side,  as  a  defence  against 
the  remaining  influence  of  Heathenism,  he  repairs  to 
Charles  Martel,  with  a  recommendatory  letter  from  Rome, 
and  enters  into  an  understanding  with  him.  Preaches 
again  in  Germany,  and  founds  a  church  and  monastery  in 
Thuringia. 

During  this  century,  new  life  is  given  to  the  Gallican 
Church,  which  had  suffered  greatly  from  the  rapacity  of 
the  nobles,  and  from  civil  commotions. 

*  About  this  time,  two  English  missionaries,  the 
brothers  Ewald,  make  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  pro- 
pagate Christianity  among  the  Saxons,  and  are  put  to 
death. 

Leo  III.  (the  Isaurian)  publishes  an  edict  prohibiting 
the  religious  adoration  of  images.  Germanus,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  John  of  Damascus,  and  many  monks, 
oppose  this  edict. 

Now  begins  the  vexatious  controversy  respecting  the 
use  of  images,  which  continued  to  distract  the  Church 
during  the  space  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  years,  until  842, 
ivhen  the  superstitious  practice  was  finally  confirmed  and 
legalised, 

#  Inas,  King  of  Wessex,  founds  a  Saxon  school  at  Rome, 
and  makes  a  grant  for  its  support. 


Second  edict  of  Leo  prohibiting  all  image-worship  under 
severe  penalties.  Anastasius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  room  of  Germanus,  supports  the  edicts.  Popular 
tumults. 

The  Romans  erect  themselves  into  a  republic ;  at  the 
head  of  which  they  place  the  pope,  who  is  intrusted  with 
the  general  administration  of  affairs. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Charlemagne.       167 

730  ]       f  Corbinian.  He  had  advanced  the  cause  of  Christianity 
in  Bavaria. 

John  of  Damascus,  promoter  of  dialectics  and  the  Aris- 
totelian philosophy  in  the  East. 

f  Cosmas  of  Jerusalem,  poet. 

731  *  With  this  year  Bede's  English  Church  History  ends. 


732  Boniface  made  archbishop  and  vicar  apostolical. 

Charles  Martel  defeats  the  Arabians  at  Tours,  and 
thus  sets  bounds  to  the  inroads  of  Mohammedanism  in 
the  West. 

The  popes  attach  themselves  to  Charles  Martel  in  pre- 
ference to  the  Emperor  Leo. 


Doctrine  of  the  Church  concerning  the  existence  of  God. 

John  of  Damascus  maintained  that  the  knowledge  of 
God  was  originally  implanted  in  the  mind  of  man ;  but 
that  it  had  been  taken  away  by  the  Evil  One ;  and  now 
it  is  only  by  means  of  divine  revelation  that  we  are 
enabled  so  to  make  use  of  our  reason,  as  to  argue  from 
the  mutability  of  the  creature  to  the  unchangeableness  of 
the  Creator. 

734  #  Saxon  translation  of  St.  John's  Gospel,  by  Bede. 

735  f  Venerable  Bede.      (Alcuin  born.) 


Attempts  to  introduce  Christianity  into  Denmark  had 
been  unsuccessful. 
739  Boniface  erects  bishoprics  in  various  parts  of  Germany, 

and  adopts  measures  for  the  general  establishment  and 
organisation  of  the  Church  in  that  country. 
|  Willibrod. 


740  #  First  mention  of  the  payment  of  tithes  in  Britain ;  but 

not  as  a  new  custom. 


741  CONSTANTINE  V.  (COPMONYMUS)  EMP.  EAST. 

M    4 


168  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST       {Third 

741  to  750.  Constantine  Copronymus  perseveres   in   oppo- 

sition   to  image- worship.     Popular  tumults  in  favour  of 
image-worship  quelled. 

The  Popes,  having  become  Monarchs  of  the  Church, 
aim  at  Supremacy  over  Temporal  Princes. 

A  council  held  this  year  enjoins  upon  bishops  and 
abbots  care  for  the  due  instruction  of  youth  in  Holy 
Scripture ;  enacts  that  bishops  shall  preach  during  their 
visitation  journeys ;  and  that  priests  shall  teach  the  people 
the  creed  and  Lord's  prayer. 

*  It  appears  that  at  this  time  the  British  Church  was 
not  entirely  independent  of  Rome.  But  there  is  no 
proof  that  the  supremacy  or  judicial  authority  of  Rome 
had  been  yet  established  in  Britain. 


743 


744 
745 


747 


749 


First  Provincial  Council  of  Germany,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Boniface,  as  pope's  legate.  Many  such  councils 
under  Boniface,  for  the  purpose  of  enacting  laws  con- 
cerning the  lives  and  manners  of  the  clergy,  spreading 
religious  knowledge  among  the  people,  healing  divisions 
and  schisms,  and  condemning  erroneous  doctrines. 

Sturmio,  a  disciple  of  Boniface,  founds  the  abbey  of 
Fulda. 

The  archiepiscopal  seat  of  Boniface  fixed  at  Mentz, 


Pilgrimages  to  Rome  are  now  of  frequent  occurrence, 
and  often  attended  with  disorderly  conduct. 

The  Monastic  Orders  gradually  obtain  large  accessions  of 
loealth. 

#  It  was  decreed  by  the  Council  of  Cloveshoo  that  the 
people  should  learn  the  creed,  the  Lord's  prayer,  and 
some  portions  of  the  liturgy  in  the  vulgar  tongue. 


Aistulph,  King  of  the  Lombards. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  charlemagne.  169 

750  Abul  Abbas,  Caliph,  first  of  the  Abbassides. 


(cir.  750.)  John  of  Damascus. 
His  "  Exposition  of  the  Orthodox  Faith,"  a  compound 
of  Aristotelian  philosophy  and  Patristic  doctrine,  conti- 
nued to  be  a  standard  of  faith  in  the  Eastern  Church, 
and  exercised  considerable  influence  also  in  the  West. 
His  writings,  in  fact,  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  method  of 
stating  and  expounding  Christian  doctrine. 


Doctrine  of  the  Church. 

The  churches  retain  the  fundamental  articles  of  Christ- 
ian faith,  but  with  certain  corruptions,  arising  partly 
from  general  ignorance,  and  partly  from  erroneous  tenets, 
especially  those  which  were  introduced  by  John  of 
Damascus. 

The  points  of  doctrine  which  now  form  the  chief  sub- 
jects of  discussion  are  those  relating  to  the  person  of 
Christ  and  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Religious  controversy  was  now  conducted  solely  with 
arguments  derived  from  the  opinions  and  authority  of 
former  teachers. 


Church  and  State. 

The  kings  of  the  Franks,  before  Charlemagne,  assumed 
the  right  of  nominating  bishops  at  their  pleasure,  either 
gratuitously  or  for  money,  notwithstanding  the  protests 
of  popes  and  councils. 

Provincial  councils  also  fell  into  disuse  during  this 
period,  no  merely  ecclesiastical  statute  being  allowed  to 
possess  the  force  of  a  law.  But  they  were  revived  after 
Boniface  had  established  such  councils  in  Germany. 
After  this,  the  influence  of  the  Church  in  matters  of  civil 
government  was  considerable.  To  this  influence,  how- 
ever, limits  were  set  by  Charlemagne,  who  divided  the 
estates  of  the  kingdom  into  temporal  and  spiritual  (the 
latter  consisting  of  the  bishops),  entrusting  to  the  former 


170  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST       (Third 

the  care  of  civil  matters,  and  to  the  latter  the  manage- 
ment of  matters  ecclesiastical,  and  ordaining  that  the 
decrees  of  both  should  await  the  royal  sanction. 

In  Spain,  the  Church  had  great  influence  in  matters  of 
State.  Here  it  was  arranged  that  in  the  great  national 
assemblies  ecclesiastical  matters  should  first  be  arranged 
by  ecclesiastics  alone,  and  then  the  temporal  or  civil 
business  should  be  conducted  by  ecclesiastics  and  laymen 
conjointly. 

The  practice  of  religion  now  in  the  greatest  esteem 
consisted  in  the  honouring  of  saints,  contributing  to  the 
erection  of  religious  edifices,  and  making  rich  presents 
to  the  clergy. 

Pilgrimages  also  are  in  high  repute. 


The  celebration  of  the  Lord's   supper  is  now  entirely 
converted  into  the  so-called  sacrifice  of  the  mass. 
Masses  for  the  dead,  for  the  sick,  for  fine  weather. 
The  service  much  frequented  by  children. 


Many  Italian  and  Gallican  bishops,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  Augustin  in  Africa,  had  endeavoured  to  esta- 
blish certain  rules  and  orders  among  the  clergy,  for  the 
better  regulation  of  their  morals  and  the  preservation  of 
decorum.  About  this  time,  Chrodegang,  Bishop  of  Metz, 
succeeded  in  establishing  rules  for  canons  and  chapters,  in 
imitation  of  the  monastic  (Benedictine)  institutes,  which 
were  confirmed  in  general  by  Charlemagne. 


751  Childeric  III.,  last  of  the  Merovignian  kings,  deposed, 

and  shut  up  in  a  convent. 

The  Lombards  attack  Ravenna,  and  make  themselves 
masters  of  the  Exarchate  and  Pentapolis. 
7<5^  Pepin  the  Short,  sole  monarch  of  France. 

End  of  the  Merovignian  dynasty  in  France.     End  of  the 
Greek  Exarchate  in  Italy. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Charlemagne.  171 

J53  Almanzor,  Caliph  of  the  Arabians,  a  great  promoter  of 

learning  and  science. 

Boniface,  choosing  rather  to   labour  as  an  apostle  or 
missionary,  resigns  his  archbishopric  (to  Lull). 


The  emperor  convenes  a  council  at  Constantinople, 
designed  as  the  Seventh  General  Council,  which  anathema- 
tizes all  persons  making  images  of  Christ,  as  Nestorian  or 
Eutychian  heretics ;  declares  the  eucharistic  elements  to 
be  the  only  lawful  representation  of  our  Lord's  body ; 
and  condemns  the  religious  use  of  images  in  general. 
At  the  same  time,  it  anathematizes  all  opponents  of  the 
religious  veneration  of  Mary,  and  other  saints.  Opposi- 
tion is  offered  by  the  monks,  who  defend  the  use  of 
pictures  and  images,  and  are  severely  treated  in  conse- 
quence. Opponents  of  image-worship  —  Iconomachi  — 
in  the  ascendant. 

Abdalrahman,  first  of  the  independent  Ommiyadan 
Caliphs,  at  Cordova. 

Boniface  put  to  death  by  the  heathen  Prisons,  after 
having  converted  many  of  their  countrymen  to  Christ- 
ianity. 

Christians  in  Syria  forbidden  to  build  new  churches. 


Pepin  the  Short  confers  the  Exarchate  and  Pentapolis 
upon  St.  Peter  (the  pope). 

The  donation  of  Pepin  confirms  and  extends  the  secular 
power  of  the  pope.  Origin  of  the  pope's  temporal  sover- 
eignty. 

The  clergy  withdraw  themselves  more  and  more  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  civil  magistrate.  Their  habits  of 
life,  for  the  most  part,  are  exceedingly  dissolute  and 
vicious.  But  their  fictitious  piety  is  extolled,  and  their  lying 
wonders  are  believed ;  while  some  men  of  higher  moral 
character,  who  refuse  to  serve  the  avarice  or  ambition  of 
the  order,  are  branded  with  infamy,  as  impious  blas- 
phemers.   


172  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST     (Third 

Gregory  of  Utrecht,  a  disciple  and  companion  of 
Boniface,  presides  over  a  monastery  in  Friesland,  where 
he  trains  English,  German,  and  Frankish  youths  as  mis- 
sionaries. 


756  The   kingdom    of  Oviedo    or    Leon    founded,    under 

Alphonso  I. 

Desiderius,  King  of  the  Lombards. 
7*59  Pepin  expels  the  Arabs  from  Languedoc. 


Ecclesiastical  authority  makes  various  encroachments  on 
the  civil  power. 

7^0  France  now  possesses  many  schools. 

*•  At  York  there  is  a  school  for  the  clergy,  and  a  library. 
Alcuin  was  educated  there. 

Gregory,  disciple  of  Boniface,  trains  young  men  for  the 
work  of  promoting  the  conversion  of  the  Saxons. 


*jQ6  Almanzor  makes  Bagdad  the  capital  of  the  Caliphate, 

instead  of  Damascus. 


767  Struggle  for  the  see  of  Rome,  between  Constantine, 
Philip,  and  Stephen. 

Ecbert,  Archbishop    of  York,  makes   a   collection   of 
canon  laws.  

768  Charlemagne,  King  of  the  Franks. 
Charlemagne   endeavours    to    propagage    Christianity 

among  the  Saxons  by  force.  Outward  conformity  occa- 
sionally produced ;  but  the  Saxons  renounced  Christi- 
anity as  soon  as  they  threw  off  the  French  yoke.  Alcuin 
advised  the  emperor  to  attempt  their  conversion  by  means 
of  instruction  and  conviction ;  but  in  vain. 


The  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  at  variance  re- 
specting the  doctrine  of  the  double  procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. 


Period.)  To  the  death  of  Charlemagne.      173 

Charlemagne  patronises  and  promotes  Literature  in  the  West. 
*  Alcuin  labours  for  the  advancement  of  theological 
learning  in  England. 


Charlemagne,  sole  king  of  France, 

From  this  time,  until  the  end  of  the  century,  Charle- 
magne successfully  prosecutes  wars  against  the  Saxons, 
Bohemians,  and  Huns.  He  compels  the  people  whom 
he  conquers  to  embrace  Christianity.  This  method  of 
propagating  the  Gospel  by  the  sword  was  learnt,  say 
some,  from  the  Mohammedans. 

Under  the  dominion  of  the  Franks,  the  clergy  enjoyed 
the  privilege  of  exemption  from  military  service;  but 
with  two  provisions,  first,  that  the  lands  of  abbots  and 
bishops  should  furnish  due  contributions  for  war;  and 
secondly,  that  no  persons  of  free  condition  should  enter 
holy  orders  without  permission  from  the  superior  magis- 
trate. Hence  many  slaves  were  admitted  into  the  clerical 
body. 

Charlemagne  dethrones  Desiderius,  and  puts  an  end 
to  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  in  Italy.  He  receives 
the  right  of  sovereignty  over  Rome  and  the  ecclesiastical 
states. 

LEO  IV.  Emp.  East.     (Irene,  Empress.) 

Leo  IV.  is  opposed  to  image-worship.  His  queen, 
Irene,  a  superstitious  and  depraved  woman,  favours   it. 

The  practice  of  different  churches,  with  respect  to  the 
use  and  worship  of  images,  varies,  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent parts  taken  by  their  leaders  in  the  controversy  on 
that  subject  now  pending. 

The  payment  of  tithes  for  the  first  time  rendered  com- 
pulsory by  a  law  of  Charlemagne. 

After  the  death  of  Leo,  and  during  the  minority  of  his 
son,  Irene  lends  her  support  to  the  friends  of  image- 
worship. 

Sergius,  under  the  name  of  Tychichus,  an  active  and 
influential  leader  of  the  Paulicians ;  zealous  especially  in 
the  cause  of  practical  Christianity.     (He  died  in  811.) 


174  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY   THE    FIRST      (Third 

780 


782 


784 


786 


787 


CONSTANTINE  VI.  EMP.  EAST. 
His  mother,  the  Empress  Irene,  Guardian,  until  790. 


From  this  time  Alcuin  is  in  France. 
Many  schools  in  cathedrals  and  monasteries  founded 
by  Charlemagne. 

Tarasius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  the  room  of 
Paul,  seconds  the  views  of  Irene.  He  unites  with  the 
Church  of  Rome,  which  had  declared  in  favour  of  image- 
worship,  and  declares  the  last  council  not  general. 

Attempts  at  convening  a  general  council  at  Constanti- 
nople frustrated  by  the  opposition  of  opponents  of  image- 
worship. 

Haroun  al  Raschid,  Caliph. 


This  year,  the  Seventh  General  Council  assembled 
at  Nic^a  (II.). 

Here  the  acts  of  the  former  council  were  annulled,  and 
the  religious  adoration  of  images  was  established  (not 
Xctrpsloi,  worship,  but  7Tfo<rxuv>jcn£  t^yitixyj,  veneration). 
Adrian,  of  Rome,  approved  the  acts  of  this  council.  But 
the  decree  in  favour  of  the  religious  veneration  of  images 
was  condemned  by  councils  at  Frankfort,  Paris,  and  in 
Britain. 

Transubstantiation.  The  Second  Council  of  Nicaea  de- 
termines that  the  elements  in  the  Lord's  supper  are  the 
very  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  not  figures.  Doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  not  yet  quite  formed. 


Charlemagne  increases  the  grants  of  temporal  pos- 
sessions to  the  pope.  He  retains,  however,  complete 
sovereignty  over  Rome,  and  is  acknowledged  by  the 
pope  as  supreme. 

Adoptian  Controversy. 

Elipandus,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  Felix,  Bishop  of 
Urgella  in  Catalonia,  maintain  that  Christ,  according  to 
his  divine  nature,  is  the  true   Son  of  God   (Alius  Dei, 


Period.)  TO  the  death  of  charlemagne.      175 

genere,  natura)  ;  but,  according  to  his  human  nature,  the 
Son  of  God  only  by  adoption  (filius  Dei  adoptivus;  filius 
Dei  gratia,  beneficio,  voluntate,  assumtione,  electione). 
Hence  themselves  and  followers  are  called  Adoptians. 
This  doctrine  meets  with  violent  opposition,  as  savouring 
of  Nestorianism,  and  tending  to  the  denial  of  the  true 
and  proper  divinity  of  Christ. 


Gradual  foundation  of  churches  and  monasteries  in 
Saxony. 

Charlemagne  publishes  a  refutation  of  the  principles 
sanctioned  by  the  Seventh  General  Council  (Quatuor  Libri 
Carolini).  He  maintains,  in  accordance  with  the  sentiments 
of  Gregory  the  Great,  that  no  kind  of  veneration  ought  to 
be  paid  to  images  or  pictures,  although  they  may  be 
lawfully  and  conveniently  retained  in  churches  as  me- 
morials of  sacred  subjects —  incentives  to  devotion  —  a 
means  of  instruction  for  the  illiterate  —  and  ornaments. 

Charlemagne  compels  the  Saxons  to  pay  tithes. 


At  the  Diet  and  Council  of  Ratisbon,  the  doctrine 
of  the  Adoptians  is  condemned  as  heretical.  Felix  re- 
cants. 


#  Offa,  king  of  Mercia  and  East  Anglia,  having 
murdered  his  son-in-law  Ethelbert,  seeks  to  atone  for  his 
crime  by  imposing  a  tax  of  one  penny  on  each  family  in 
his  dominions,  to  be  paid  annually  to  the  Roman  see. 
This,  with  a  similar  donation  of  Ina,  King  of  the  West 
Saxons,  in  7*25,  lays  the  foundation  of  the  tribute  deno- 
minated 

Peter's  Pence, 


Felix,  after  his  return  to  Spain,  maintains  his  former 
opinions.     Alcuin  writes  a  refutation. 


A  council  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine  repeats   the  con- 


176  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST       (Third 

demnation  of  Adoptian  tenets,  and  decides  in  favour  of 
Charlemagne's  positions  respecting  image-worship. 

Felix  defends  his  doctrine  against  Alcuin.  Several 
bishops  unite  with  Alcuin  in  the  controversy  against  him, 
especially  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Aquileia. 


795 
796 

797 


The  universal  payment  of  tithes  enforced  by  a  canon 
of  the  Council  of  Frankfort. 

Temporal  princes  and  nobles  are  now  in  possession  of  the 
principal  church  patronage. 

Two  celebrated  forgeries,  designed  for  the  advancement  of 
the  power  of  the  Roman  see,  namely,  the  false  Decretals,  and 
the  Donation  of  Constantine,  were  published  about  this  time. 

Bishops  have  now  begun  to  take  an  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  pope.  The  pope  supreme  in  the  Western  Church, 
although  not  yet  quite  absolute. 


The  Aristotelian  philosophy  is  now  in  high  repute  in  the 
East. 

Charlemagne  promotes  the  education  of  the  clergy.  He 
founds  the  Academy  of  Paris. 

Homiliarium,  a  collection  of  sermons  for  all  the  Sundays 
and  Festivals  of  the  year,  selected  from  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers,  especially  Augustin  and  Gregory  the  Great, 
compiled  by  Paul  Warnefried,  and  published  by  authority 
of  Charlemagne. 

Charlemagne  also  patronised  a  revision  and  correction 
of  the  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures,  which  had  been 
disfigured  with  barbarisms. 


Normans  invade  Ireland. 
The   conquests    and  dominions   of  Charlemagne  con- 
tinually increase. 

In  a  council  held  at  Friuli,  the  doctrine  of  the  double 
procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  asserted,  and  the  words 
Filioque  added  to  the  Nicene  Creed. 


Irene,  Empress  of  the  East, 
after  the  murder  of  her  son. 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Charlemagne.      177 

799  Felix  again  retracts  his  Adoptian  tenets  at  the  Council 

of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  after  a  disputation  with  Alcuin.     Eli- 
pandus  continued  to  maintain  his  tenets. 

|  Paul  Warnefried  (Paul us  Diaconus). 


803 


804. 


Timothy,  the  Nestorian  patriarch  (778—820),  is  said 
to  have  sent  missionaries  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  borders 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  as  far  as  China  and  India. 


Charlemagne,  Emperor  of  the  West. 


Image-worship  opposed  by  Charlemagne. 

Prayers  to  the  Virgin  Mary  and  other  Saints  for  inter- 
cession have  become  common. 

Charlemagne  transmitted  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Frankfort-on-the- Maine,  and  his  books,  to  Adrian.  The 
pope  compiled  a  Refutation  of  the  Caroline  treatise ; 
which,  however,  made  no  impression  on  the  Gallican 
Church. 

Charlemagne  was  a  great  cultivator  of  church  music 
and  psalmody,  and  promoted  the  celebration  of  divine 
service  in  the  vernacular  tongue.  Organs  introduced 
from  the  East  to  the  West,  but  not  yet  employed  in 
public  worship. 

The  Frankish  liturgy  made  conformable  to  the  Roman. 


"f  George  Syncellus,  historian. 


The  Caliphate  begins  to  decline. 


Irene  deposed. 
Nicephorus  (Logotheta),  Emp.  East. 
(806.)  The   Saracens  overrun  Asia  Minor,  and  compel 
Nicephorus  to  pay  tribute. 

The  Saxons  finally  subdued  by  Charlemagne. 


T  Alcuin.     Paul 


in  us. 


178  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST      (Third 

809  Charlemagne  causes  the  addition  of   Filioque  to  the 

Niceno-Constantinopolitan  Creed  to  be  confirmed  by  the 
Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Leo  declared  the  doctrine  of 
the  double  procession  to  be  correct,  but  thought  that  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  had  forborne  to  make  the  addi- 
tion under  the  guidance  of  divine  inspiration.  Therefore 
the  admission  of  Filioque  into  the  creed  was  not  confirmed 
at  Rome. 

Unsuccessful  attempts  at  the  forcible  conversion  of  the 
Slavi,  in  the  north  and  east  of  Germany. 

A  mission  for  the  conversion  of  the  Avares,  in  Aus- 
tria and  Hungary,  under  conduct  of  Arno,  Bishop  of 
Saltzburg. 

Many  churches,  monasteries,  and  bishoprics,  founded  in 
Saxony,  where  the  Gospel  is  now  gaining  a  firmer  foot- 
ing. Christian  knowledge  disseminated  by  the  labours  of 
pious  and  zealous  preachers. 


Partial  and  temporary  revival  of  Literature  in  Europe. 
Flourishing  period  of  Arabian  Literature. 


811  (After  Staur acius)  Michael  I.  Emp.  East. 

Persecution  of  the  Paulicians  renewed  by  the  Emperor 
Michael  and  his  successor. 
813  Leo  V.  (the  Armenian)  Emp.  East. 

Al  Mamoun,  Caliph. 


The  Council  of  Mentz  frames  a  general  rule  for  the 
canons  regular  of  Augustin. 

Great  corruption  had  now  spread  among  the  monastic 
institutions.  In  many  cases  monasteries  were  under  the 
superintendence  of  lay-abbots,  whose  only  object  was  the 
appropriation  of  revenue. 

The  Council  of  Mentz  enjoins  the  practice  of  preaching 
in  the  vernacular  tongue.  Council  of  Chalon  on  the 
Seine  enjoins  scriptural  preaching,  and  the  foundation 
of  Christian  schools. 

During  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  the  clergy  acquired 
a  large  accession  to  their  wealth,  and  an  increase  of  their 


Period.)  to  the  death  of  Charlemagne.      179 

immunities  and  privileges;  e.  g.  the  right  of  coining 
money,  —  of  hunting  and  fishing,  —  and  exemption  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  inferior  civil  magistrates. 

Temporal  princes  still  exercise  authority  in  ecclesiastical 
matters  to  a  considerable  extent.  Thus  Charlemagne  took 
cognisance  of  controversies,  and  procured  the  assembling 
of  councils  for  the  purpose  of  deciding  them;  instituted 
bishops,  or  confirmed  their  appointment;  superintended 
the  administration  of  Church  property ;  determined  the 
boundaries  of  dioceses ;  and  enacted  laws  affecting  the 
interests  of  the  Church. 

The  judicial  authority  and  independence  of  the  bishops 
were  greatly  extended  by  Charlemagne.  The  jurisdiction 
of  the  bishop  extended  to  all  causes,  referred  to  him  by 
either  of  two  parties,  and  to  all  persons,  whether  clerks  or 
laymen.  No  appeal  from  his  decision.  All  the  clergy  de- 
clared exempt  from  secular  jurisdiction.  The  right  of 
imprisonment  conceded  to  bishops  in  the  execution  of 
judicial  sentences. 

Beyond  the  limits  of  Italy  and  the  countries  occupied 
by  the  Franks,  the  power  of  the  pope  was  at  its  highest 
pitch  in  England,  and  its  lowest  condition  in  Spain. 

Church  discipline  thoroughly  relaxed ;  —  superstitious 
opinions  concerning  the  awful  effects  of  excommunication 
prevalent ;  but  the  doctrine  widely  spread,  that  men  may 
redeem  their  own  souls,  or  those  of  their  relatives,  by  gifts 
to  the  Church. 

The  Eucharist.  —  Doctrine  of  Transubstantiation. 

As  early  as  the  seventh  century,  and  especially  during 
the  eighth  and  ninth,  the  fictitious  doctrine  of  a  miracu- 
lous, and  as  it  were  magical,  change  of  the  elements  of  the 
Lord's  supper  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  began  to 
gain  ground.  This  change,  it  was  supposed,  was  made 
secretly,  for  the  exercise  of  faith  ;  and  therefore  the  trans- 
muted elements  existed  under  the  appearance  (colour, 
flavour,  &c.)  of  bread  and  wine  (sub  specie  panis  et  vini). 
This  doctrine  was  not  established  in  the  West  without 
opposition  and  controversy;  but  it  gained  footing  in  the 
Greek  Church  more  quietly,  during  the  eighth  century. 

n  2 


180 


FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST       {Third 


It  was  not  distinguished  by  its  modern  name  (Transub- 
stantiation)  before  the  twelfth  century. 

About  this  time,  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the 
Eucharist  was  introduced  in  the  West. 


List  of  Popes,  Patriarchs,  and  Archbishops  of  Can- 
terbury,   FROM    THE    YEAR   604   TO    814. 


604.   Sabinian. 

678. 

—     *  Lawrence. 

606.  Boniface  III. 

682. 

607.  Boniface  IV. 

683. 

—     Thomas  I. 

610.  Sergius. 

684. 

615.  Deodatus. 

685. 

617.  Boniface  V. 

686. 

619.  *  Mellitus. 

— 

624-.  *  Justus. 

.687. 

625.  Honorius  I. 

693. 

634.  *  Honorius. 

— 

638.  Pyrrhus. 

701. 

640.  Severinus. 

705. 

—     John  IV. 

— 

641.  Paul  II. 

708. 

Pyrrhus  deposed. 

— 

642.  Theodorus  I. 

712. 

649.  Martin  I. 

715. 

654.  *  Adeodatus. 

— 

655.  Eugenius. 

730. 

—     Pyrrhus, 

731. 

Restored. 

— 

657-    VlTALIAN. 

735. 

667.   Thomas  II. 

741. 

668.  *  Theodore. 

742. 

669.  John  V. 

752. 

672.  Adeodatus. 

— 

674.   Constantine. 

754. 

676.  Domnus. 

757. 

—     Theodore  I. 

759. 

678.  Agatho. 

763. 

George  I. 

Theodore  deposed. 
Leo  II. 
Theodore, 

restored. 

Benedict  II. 
John  V. 
Conon. 
Paul  III. 

Sergius. 
Callinicus  I. 

*  Birthwald. 
John  VI. 
John  VII. 
Cyrus. 
Sisinnius. 
Constantine. 
John  VI. 
Gregory  II. 
Germanus  I. 
Anastasius  I. 
Gregory  III. 

*  Tatwine. 

*  Nothelm. 
Zachary. 

*  Cuthbert. 
Stephen  II. 
Stephen  III. 
Constantine  II. 
Paul  I. 

*  Bregvvin. 

*  Lambert. 


Period.) 


TO    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE. 


J  81 


766.  Nicetas  I. 

767.  CoNSTANTINE. 

768.  Stephen  IV.  (or  III.) 
772.  Adrian  I. 

780.  Paul  IV. 


784.    Tarasius. 

793.  *  Athelard. 

795.  Leo  III. 

804.  (al.  807.)  *  Wulfred. 

806.  Nicephorus. 


Councils  from  the  Year  604  to  814. 


604.  *  Worcester  (celebration  of 

Easter,  &c.).. 

605.  *  Canterbury  (abbey  of  St. 

Peter  and  St.  Paul). 

—  London    (under    Augustin  ; 

concerning  marriages). 
610.  Rome. 

—  Toledo. 

614.  Egara. 

615.  Paris  V.   (national     council 

and  diet ;  on  discipline). 
61 9.   Seville  (national  council  and 
diet ;   respecting  Church 
property,      and     against 
Monophysites), 

625.  Rheims  (on  discipline). 

626.  Constantinople     (in   favour 

of  Monothelites). 

630.  *  Lenia,  in  Ireland  (con- 
cerning Easter). 

633.  Alexandria  (in  favour  of 
Monothelitic  doctrines). 

—  Toledo    (on    doctrine    and 

discipline). 

636.  Toledo. 

638.  Toledo. 

638.  Constantinople  (reception 
of  the  Ecthesis ;  in  favour 
of  Monothelites). 

640,  641.  Rome  (against  the 
Monothelites). 

644.  Chalon  on  Seine  (on  disci- 
pline). 

646.  Africa  (against  Monothe- 
lites). 

646.    Toledo  (on  discipline). 


648.  Rome    (against    Monothe- 
lites). 
649*  Thessalonica. 

—  Rome  (Lateran :  — Ecthesis 

and  Typus  condemned). 
653.  Toledo  (in    support  of  the 
four  general  councils). 

655.  Toledo  (Church  property). 

656.  Toledo  (on  discipline). 

659.  Malay   le    Roi    (on     disci- 

pline). 

660.  Nantes  (on  discipline). 
664.  *  Whitby  (on  discipline). 

666.  Merida  (on  discipline). 

667.  Rome. 

670.  Bourdeaux  (on  discipline). 
673.  *  Hertford    (celebration    of 

Easter). 
670.  Aujtun. 
675.  Toledo  (on  discipline). 

—  Braga. 

679.  Milan,  France  (concerning 
Monothelitic  doctrines). 

679.  Rome. 

680.  *  Hapfeld  '  (Anglican,     or 

Anglo-Saxon;  under  The- 
odore \  against  Monothe- 
lites). 

680.  Rome. 

680  and  681.  Constantinople 
III.  The  Sixth  General 
(against  the  Monothe- 
lites). 

681.  Toledo. 

683.  Toledo. 

684.  Toledo. 


n  3 


182 


FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    GREGORY    THE    FIRST  {Third 


68S.  Toledo. 
689.   Rouen. 

691.  Saragossa  (on  discipline). 

692.  Constantinople  —  Quini- 

sextum  ;  trullanum 
(on  discipline). 

693.  Toledo  (on  discipline). 

694.  Toledo  (on  discipline). 

—  *  Beaconsfield  (immunities 
of  churches  and  monas- 
teries). 

697.  *  Berkhampstead. 

698.  Aquiieia  (Tria  Capitula  con- 

demned). 
701.  Toledo. 

703.  *  Nesterfield   (against  Wil- 

frid, Archbishop  of  York). 

704.  Rome  (Wilfrid  absolved). 

705.  *  Near   the  river  Nidda,  in 

Northumberland  (Wilfrid 
received  again  by  English 
bishops). 

712.  Constantinople  (in  favour  of 
Monothelite  doctrines ; 
the  Sixth  General  Council 
declared  null,  and  its  acts 
burnt). 

715.  Constantinople  (against  Mo- 
nothelites  ;  in  support  of 
theSixthGeneralCouncil). 

720.  Rome. 

730.  Rome  (in  favour  of  image- 

worship). 

731.  Constantinople  (against 

image -worship). 

732.  Rome  (in  support  of  image- 

worship). 

742.  Germany  (on  discipline). 

743.  Rome. 

—  Leptinse  (Lestines). 

744.  Soissons. 

745.  Germany. 

—  Rome. 

747.  *  Cloveshoo,  or  Abingdon. 
752.  Mentz. 


754.  Constantinople 

image-worship). 

755.  Vern  (on  discipline). 

756  *  England  (under  Cuthbert. 
Feast  of  St.  Boniface). 

—  Compeigne. 

—  Attigny. 

766.  Jerusalem     (in     favour    of 

image- worship). 

767.  (al.  796.)  Gentilly. 

768.  Ratisbon. 

769.  Rome  (Lateran ;  in  support 

of     image-worship ;    the 
Council  of  Greece  in  754 
anathematised). 
774.  Rome. 

777.  Paderborn      (council     and 

diet). 

778.  Rome  (Lateran.) 
780.  Paderborn. 

782.  Cologne. 

782.  785.  Paderborn. 

787-  Nic^a  II.  The  Seventh 
General  (image-wor- 
ship re-established). 

—  In  England,  one  under  the 

archbishop  of  York,  and 
another  under  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  in 
presence  of  papal  legates. 

792.  Ratisbon. 

793.  *  Verulam   (abbey    of    St. 

Alban's  founded). 

794.  Frankfort  -  on  -  the  -  Maine 

(against  image-worship ; 
decision  of  Seventh  Ge- 
neral Council  rejected ; 
against  Adoptians). 

796.  Friuli  (against  Adoptians ; 
double  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  asserted). 

799.  Ratisbon  (on  discipline). 
—    *  Beaconsfield  (Church  pro- 
perty). 


Period. 


TO    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE. 


183 


799. 

*  Finkley    (observance     of 

809. 

Constantinople. 

Easter). 

— 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (procession 

— 

Rome.          Aix-la-Chapelle 

of  the  Holy  Ghost). 

(against  Adoptians). 

813. 

Aries.        Rheims.      Tours. 

800. 

*  Cloveshoo     (matters     of 

Chalon.    Mentz.  Aix-la- 

faith). 

Chapelle  (on  discipline). 

— 

Rome. 

814. 

Constantinople  (in  favour  of 

803. 

Aix-la-Chapelle. 

image-worship). 

807. 

Saltzburg  (fourfold  partition 
of  tithes). 

END    OF    THE    THIRD   PERIOD. 


N    4 


PERIOD   IV. 


814 


815 


FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  CHARLEMAGNE  TO  THE 
PONTIFICATE  OF  GREGORY  VII. 


814—1073. 


Louis  the  Pious,  Emp.  West. 
(Leo  V.  the  Armenian,  Emp.  East.) 
The  weak  reign  of  Louis  was  favourable  to  the  conso- 
lidation and  advancement  of  papal  power.  The  emperor 
himself  was  disposed  to  submit  to  the  arguments  of  the 
champions  of  ecclesiastical  authority  and  superstition ; 
and  the  rebellion  of  his  sons  furnished  an  advantageous 
opportunity  for  papal  interference,  which  was  carefully 
improved. 

The  friendly  relations  which  subsisted  between  the 
Franks  and  the  Danes  were  favourable  to  the  introduction 
of  Christianity  into  Denmark,  which  had  been  hitherto 
prevented. 

Leo  V.  (the  Armenian)  declares  against  image-worship, 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  made  by  Nicephorus, 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  the  Abbot  Theodore 
Studites. 

Temporary  suppression  of  Image-worship. 

Theodore  Cassiteras,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in 
the  room  of  Nicephorus.  A  council  at  Constantinople 
forbids  the  worship  of  images.  Theodore  Studites  and 
the  monks  persevere  in  their  attachment  to  the  cause  of 


817 


FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  CHARLEMAGNE,  ETC.      185 

Agobard,  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  816 — 840,  protested 
against  the  prevailing  superstition  in  the  worship  of  pic- 
tures and  images,  and  the  adoration  of  saints.  He  reproved 
the  clergy  for  paying  more  attention  to  the  art  of  chant- 
ing than  to  the  study  of  Scripture. 

Canons  and  chapters  formally  established  among  the 
clergy  of  France  by  the  Diet  and  Council  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  (Regula  Aquisgranensis),  comprising  the  previous 
enactments  of  the  Council  of  Mentz.  Order  of  Canon- 
esses  Regular  founded. 

Benedict  of  Aniane  in  Languedoc  attempts  to  establish  a 
new  rule  for  the  reformation  of  monasteries,  founded 
upon  the  existing  Benedictine  institutes  (Congregatio 
monachorum) . 

During  the  early  part  of  this  period  (until  the  tenth 
century),  the  schools  of  the  monasteries  continued  to  che- 
rish an  assiduous  study  of  Scripture,  with  the  commenta- 
ries of  the  Fathers,  especially  of  Augustin  ;  but,  in  oppo- 
sition to  this  scriptural  and  practical  system  of  study  and 
exposition,  a  contemplative  mystical  theology  insinuated 
itself  into  the  Western  Church  from  the  East,  supported 
by  the  spurious  writings  which  went  under  the  name  of 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  Partly  in  connexion  with 
this  mysticism  appeared  also  the  germs  of  a  speculative 
dialectic  system  of  theology  (scholastic),  the  representative 
of  which  was  John  Scotus  Erigena  (distinction  between 
negative  and  positive  theology). 


820 


\  Theophanes,  historian. 

In  the  course  of  this  century  Adoptian  tenets  sink  into 
oblivion. 

Michael  II.  (B alb  us)  Emp.  East. 

This  emperor  was  dissatisfied  with  the  dominant  clergy, 
and  with  many  doctrines  of  the  Church. 

Personally  opposed  to  the  superstitious  use  of  images, 
he  endeavoured,  for  political  reasons,  to  effect  a  reconcili- 
ation between  the  two  parties  at  issue  on  the  subject,  and 
permitted  the  (private)  use  of  images. 


186  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE  (Fourth 

Foundation  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Taherites  at  Cho- 
rassan.     Division  of  the  Arabian  monarchy  in  the  East. 

Decline  of  the  Western  Empire.  Internal  dissensions  and 
wars. 


Propagation  of  Christianity  in  Bulgaria.     Persecution. 


821  f  Theodulph,  Bishop  of  Orleans.   He  had  endeavoured 
to  promote  scriptural  preaching. 

T  Benedict  of  Aniane. 

822  Rabanus  Maurus,  Abbot  of  Fulda. 


Ebbo,  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  appointed  missionary 
for  Denmark  and  the  North  of  Europe  at  the  Diet  of 
Attigny.  His  appointment  confirmed  by  the  pope. 
Without  much  effect. 

The  Emperor  Louis  performs  penance. 
823  Crete  taken  by  the  Arabians  (Candia). 


824  The  friends  of  image-worship,  not  satisfied  with  the  em- 
peror's conciliatory  measures,  accuse  him  of  heresy.  He 
repels  the  accusation  in  a  defence  of  himself  addressed  to 
the  Pope  and  the  Emperor  Louis  the  Pious. 

825  A  council,  assembled  at  Paris,  declares  the  adherence 
of  the  Gallican  Church  to  the  Caroline  principles  re- 
specting the  use  of  images,  and  transmits  its  decrees  to 
the  pope.  The  two  churches  retain  their  respective  sen- 
timents and  customs  in  this  matter. 


826  After  a  series  of  efforts  on  the  part  of  Louis  to  plant 

Christianity  in  Denmark,  Harald  I.,  King  of  the  Danes, 
was  baptized  this  year.     Ansgar  appointed  missionary  in 
Denmark.      He    began    his    work    by    instructing    the 
children  of  slaves. 
The  greater  part  of  Sicily  in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens. 


f  Theodore,  Abbot  of  the  Studium  at  Constantinople. 


8^7  *  Egbert,  King  of  all  England, 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.  187 

End  of  the  Saxon  Heptarchy. 


The  Emperor  Michael  Balbus  sends  to  Louis  the  Pious 
the  (spurious)  works  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite. 
|  Nicephorus. 


Harald,  unwisely  zealous  in  the  overthrow  of  idolatry, 
driven  out  of  Jutland.  (829.)  Ansgar,  after  the  deposi- 
tion of  Harald,  obliged  to  leave  Jutland,  preaches  in 
Sweden.     First  church  in  Sweden. 

Louis  of  France  yields  more  and  more  to  the  claims  of 
temporal  power  and  authority  on  the  part  of  the  bishops, 
and  their  exemption  from  civil  jurisdiction. 
Theophilus,  Emp.  East. 


Gottschalk,  a  monk  of  Orbais,  seeks  to  renounce  the 
monastic  life ;  permission  given  by  the  Council  of  Mentz ; 
but  Rabanus  Maurus,  Abbot  of  Fulda,  prevents  his 
release  by  prevailing  upon  Louis  to  ordain  that  all  Oblati 
(persons  dedicated  to  the  monastic  life  by  their  parents, 
as  was  Gottschalk),  as  well  as  others,  should  be  bound 
to  the  perpetual  observance  of  monastic  rules. 

The  Church  lends  its  sanction  to  the  barbarous  custom 
of  Ordeals. 

The  Emperor  Theophilus  publishes  an  edict  prohibiting 
all  use  of  pictures  and  images  in  churches. 


Gregory  IV.  appoints  November  as  the  month  for  the 
celebration  of  the  Festival  of  All  Saints,  already  intro- 
duced by  Boniface. 

First  rebellion  of  the  sons  of  Louis. 
Christianity  preached  in  Sweden. 
Louis,  with  the  sanction  of  the  pope,  founds  the 
archbishopric  of  Hamburg.  Ansgar,  Archbishop,  formally 
commissioned  by  the  pope  to  undertake  the  conversion 
of  the  Northern  nations.  Ansgar  gains  permission  from 
Horic,  King  of  Denmark,  to  found  a  church  in  that 
country. 


188  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  CHARLEMAGNE  (Fourth 

831  The  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation  clearly  denned  and 

boldly  maintained  by  Paschasius  Radbert,  a  monk,  and 
afterwards  abbot,  of  Corbey.  He  appealed,  in  support 
of  his  doctrine,  to  an  alleged  miraculous  appearance  of 
the  blood  of  Christ  in  the  place  of  the  consecrated  ele- 
ment. His  doctrine,  however,  met  with  opposition, 
especially  from  the  pen  of  Rabanus  Maurus  (De  Corpore 
et  Sanguine  Domini). 


834 


Claude,  Bishop  of  Turin,  opposes  the  superstitious  use 
of  relics  and  of  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and  the  worship 
of  saints  and  images. 


833  Second    rebellion    of  the    three  elder  sons    of  Louis 

against  their  father.     Louis  deposed,  clothed  in  the  garb 
of  a  penitent,  and  confined  in  a  monastery. 

Archbishops  Ebbo,  Agobard,  and  other  prelates,  take 
part  in  the  rebellion.  Other  bishops  retain  their  alle- 
giance. Gregory  advances  to  the  support  of  Lothaire, 
but  meets  with  an  unfavourable  reception  from  the 
bishops  of  the  imperial  party. 


Louis  restored. 
Continued  quarrels  and  wars  in  France. 
Ebbo,  Agobard,  and  other  bishops  deposed. 
Louis  receives  absolution  from  the  Church  before  re- 
suming the  government  to  which  he  had  been  restored. 


Ansgar  founds  a  school  and  monastery  at  Hamburg, 
and  preaches  Christianity  in  the  neighbourhood. 

The  popes  take  advantage  of  the  weakness  and  distraction 
of  the  Western  Empire  to  strengthen  and  increase  their  au- 
thority over  princes  and  bishops.  But  in  these  efforts  they 
continue  to  encounter  opposition. 

About  this  time  (8*29 — 836)  the  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decre- 
tals were  published, —  compiled  (probably  by  some  mem- 
ber of  the  Gallican  Church)  with  a  view  to  support  the 
claims  of  the  papacy. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vn.    189 

This  collection  was  given  to  the  world  under  the  name 
of  Isidore  of  Seville,  to  whom  a  revision  of  the  Dionysian 
Decretals  had  been  formerly  ascribed  (see  above  a.  635) ; 
but  it  is  manifestly  spurious,  and  professes  to  contain  de- 
cretals of  the  popes  before  Siricius,  from  the  very  first 
times.  The  chief  objects  of  the  forgery  appear  to  have 
been,  the  depression  of  the  metropolitan  power  —  the 
exaltation  of  Romish  supremacy  —  the  establishment  of  the 
independence  of  the  Church  —  and  of  the  inviolability  of 
the  spiritual  power. 

Haimo,  Bishop  of  Halberstadt. 
"f  Hilduin,  Abbot    of  St.  Denys.      He  translated   the 
(spurious)  works  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite. 
t  Agobard.     "j"  Eginhard. 


The  caliphate  declines  rapidly,  in  consequence  of  the 
establishment  of  independent  dynasties  in  Africa  and 
parts  of  Asia,  and  the  growing  power  of  the  body-guard 
of  the  caliphs  (Turks). 

Ravages  of  the  Normans,  who  were  violent  opponents 
of  Christianity. 

"f  Claude,  Bishop  of  Turin. 
By  a  diligent  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  works  of 
Augustin,  he  was  led  to  discover  and  denounce  many  of 
the  prevailing  errors  and  corruptions  of  his  times.  He 
inveighed  against  the  superstitious  use  of  pictures  and 
of  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and  against  the  worship  of  saints, 
insisting  upon  the  paramount  importance  of  practical 
piety.  Several  of  the  clergy,  and  even  a  pope,  Pascal  I., 
declared  against  him.  He  protested  against  the  usurped 
papal  authority  itself.  He  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the 
emperor. 


Quarrels    between    the    sons  of  Louis  respecting   the 
division  of  the  empire.     Battle  of  Fontenay. 
Michael  III.  Emp.  East, 
(under  his  mother,  Theodora,  until  857). 


190  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE        {Fourth 

842  After  the  death  of  Theophilus,  the  regents,  Theoctistus 
and  Manuel,  with  the  Empress  Theodora,  restore  the 
worship  of  images.  A  council  at  Constantinople  confirms 
the  decree  of  the  Seventh  General  Council ;  and  images 
are  gradually  restored  to  their  places  in  the  high  church 
of  that  city.  In  commemoration  of  this  event,  and  in 
honour  of  all  zealously  orthodox  emperors  and  patriarchs, 
the  Greek  Church  afterwards  established  the  Festival  of 
Orthodoxy. 

843  Treaty  of  Verdun  for  the  partition  of  the  Western 
Empire.  Italy,  Germany,  and  France,  formed  into 
separate  states.  Lothaire,  Emperor  of  Italy,  &c. ; 
Louis,  King  of  Germany ;  Charles  the  Bald,  King  of 
France. 

(Origin  of  the  kingdom  of  France,  properly  so  called.) 
"f  Jonas,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  distinguished  by  his   pro- 
test against  the  superstitious  adoration  of  images,  and  his 
exhortations  to  practical  piety. 

844  The  bishops  assembled  in  the  Council  of  Thionville 
style  themselves  Vicars  of  Christ. 

Sergius  introduces  the  custom  of  assuming  a  new  name 
upon  election  to  the  papal  chair. 

Paschasius  Radbert,  Abbot  of  Corbey. 
Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist. 

On  the  publication  of  a  second  edition  of  Radbert's 
work  on  the  Body  and  Blood  of  the  Lord,  Charles  the 
Bald  desired  Ratramn  to  give  his  opinion  on  the  sub- 
ject. Ratramn  writes  against  the  doctrine  of  Transub- 
stantiation,  and  maintains  the  doctrine  of  a  spiritual 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist  vouchsafed  to  faith 
and  the  faithful. 

Ratramn's  work  did  little  towards  correcting  the  pre- 
valent errors  concerning  the  sacred  elements,  especially 
as  it  contained  expressions  themselves  savouring  of  the 
doctrine  of  Transubstantiation  (e.g.  convertitur  panis  in 
corpus  Christi,  operante  invisibiliter  Spiritu  S.).  Only  a 
few  divines  (Walafried  Strabo,  Druthmar,  Florus  Magister) 
agreed  with  Ratramn  in  his  partial  opposition  to  error. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.    191 

Scotus,  in  his  treatise  "  De  Eucharistia"  (now  lost),  took 
part  with  Ratramn;  but  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation 
had  taken  deep  root,  and  continued  to  prevail. 


Cruel  persecution  of  the  Paulicians ;  the  Empress 
Theodora  having  resolved  to  exterminate  the  sect.  Those 
who  escaped  fled  for  protection  to  the  Saracens,  by  whom 
they  were  received  as  enemies  of  the  Greeks.  They 
founded  a  town  (Tephrica)  on  the  borders  of  the  Greek 
territory,  from  which  place  they  carried  on  hostile  opera- 
tions ;  and  here  their  doctrine  was  preserved,  —  a  seed 
destined  to  produce  much  fruit  in  succeeding  centuries. 


John  Scotus  Erigena  at  the  court  of  Charles  the  Bald. 
He  translated  the  (spurious)  works  of  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the  scholastic  sys- 
tem of  theology,  maintaining  the  insufficiency  of  doctrines 
founded  solely  on  testimonies  of  Scripture  and  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers,  and  contending  that  the  Christian 
religion  and  doctrine  could  be,  and  ought  to  be,  deduced 
philosophically  by  a  priori  reasoning,  thus  reversing  the 
maxim  of  Augustin  "  Fides  praecedit  intellectum."  He 
distinguished  also  between  negative  and  positive  theology. 


Rabanus  Maurus,  Archbishop  of  Mentz. 


Predestinarian  Controversy. 
During  the  sixth  century,  the  whole  Augustinian  system 
of  doctrine  concerning  predestination  received  the  stamp 
of  ecclesiastical  authority  ;  but  many  of  the  clergy  evinced 
a  disposition  to  explain  away  or  to  conceal  the  more  harsh 
positions  of  this  system,  and  to  incline  to  the  more  mode- 
rate views  of  Augustin,  as  stated  in  his  book  "  De  Voca- 
tione  Gentium,"  regarding  a  plain  and  decisive  statement 
of  the  doctrine  of  predestination  as  dangerous.  About  this 
time,  the  difference  between  the  strict  and  more  lax  fol- 
lowers of  Augustin  became  matter  of  open  acknowledgment 
and  debate.  Gottschalk,  in  his  monastery,  had  diligently 
studied  the  works  of  Augustin,  and  had  become  an  enthu- 
siastic advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  absolute  predestination. 


192  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE         (Fourth 

He  regarded  the  large  number  of  his  contemporaries,  who 
refused  to  state  the  question  in  accordance  with  his  views, 
as  no  better  than  Semipelagians  ;  and  at  length,  on  oc- 
casion of  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  he  openly  charged  them 
with  Semipelagian  error  in  the  presence  of  the  Bishop  of 
Verona.  This  took  place  in  the  year  847.  He  taught 
the  doctrines  of  election  and  reprobation  under  the  title 
of  "  a  twofold  predestination." 

Rabanus  Maurus  takes  part  against  Gottschalk,  who 
maintains  the  strict  Augustinian  doctrines  concerning 
848  predestination.  At  the  Council  of  Mentz  (848),  Gottschalk 
appears  before  Louis  and  Raban,  where  he  is  excommu- 
nicated as  a  false  teacher,  and  delivered  over  to  his  me- 
tropolitan, Hincmar,  Archbishop  of  Rheims.  He  was 
brought  by  him  before  the  Council  of  Chiersy  in  849, 
and,  refusing  to  retract  his  alleged  errors,  he  was  flogged 
as  a  contumacious  monk,  and  sentenced  to  perpetual  im- 
prisonment in  the  monastery  of  Hautevilliers.  He  re- 
mained in  confinement  twenty  years,  still  persevering  in 
his  opinions,  which  he  embodied  in  his  "  Confessions." 


Cyril  sent  by   Michael  III.  as   a   missionary   to    the 
Charazes  (about  the  Crimea),  at  their  request. 

849  Bishopric  of  Bremen   united   to   the  archbishopric  of 
Hamburg. 

j"  Walafried  Strabo, 
Prudentius,  Bishop  of  Troyes.   Epistola  ad  Hincmarum, 
&c.  

850  Rise  of  the  Feudal  System. 
The   crown   weak  and  dependent;  the  power  of  the 

bishops  continually  increasing.  The  successors  of  Char- 
lemagne were  abjectly  submissive  to  the  ecclesiastical 
rulers. 

The  history  of  the  female  pope,  Joan,  said  to  have  been 
head  of  the  Church  between  the  pontificates  of  Leo  IV. 
and  Benedict  III.,  is  probably  a  fiction  of  the  eleventh 
century.     Perhaps  it  was  originally  designed  as  a  satire 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.  193 

on  the  vices  of  the  Popes  John  X.,  XL,  and  XII.,  who 
reigned  during  the  tenth  century. 

Ratramn,  De  Praedestinatione. 
Christian  Druthmar  (Grammaticus),  author  of  a  literal 
or  grammatical  commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew. 

Deplorable  ignorance  ■prevails  among  all  orders  of  Chris- 
tians.    Many  of  the  clergy  are  illiterate. 

Great  abuses  in  appointments  to  ecclesiastical  offices,   and 
in  the  administration  of  Church  property. 

Patron  Saints. 


j"  Haimo,  Bishop  of  Halberstadt. 

Predestinarian  controversy. 

The  hasty  condemnation  and  unjust  treatment  of  Gotts- 
chalk  probably  tended  to  raise  up  many  advocates  of  his 
opinions.  About  this  time,  his  cause  and  doctrines  were 
defended  against  Hincmar  by  Prudentius,  Bishop  of 
Troyes,  Ratramn,  and  Servatus  Lupus,  Abbot  of  Fer- 
rieres.  Hincmar  sought  the  assistance  of  Scotus  Erigena 
in  the  controversy.  After  Scotus  had  written  (De  Prae- 
destinatione Dei  contra  Gotteschalcum),  the  tenets  of 
Gottschalk  were  defended  by  Prudentius,  Florus  Ma- 
gister,  and  Remigius. 

Hincmar  seeks  to  gain  the  stamp  of  ecclesiastical 
authority  in  favour  of  his  opinions.  By  his  influence,  the 
Second  Council  of  Chiersy,  held  in  the  presence  of  Charles 
the  Bald,  publishes  four  propositions  (Quatuor  Capitula 
Carisiacensia)  in  opposition  to  the  tenets  of  Gottschalk 
and  his  part}'.  These  contained  not  a  contradiction,  but 
only  a  modification,  of  the  Augustinian  doctrine. 

Servatus  Lupus :  Liber  de  Tribus  Quasstionibus ;  De 
Libero  Arbitrio ;  De  Praedestinatione  Bonorum  et  Ma- 
lorum  ;  De  Sanguinis  Christi  superflua  Taxatione. 

Prudentius :  Tractatus  de  Praedestinatione  contra 
Johannem  Scotum. 

Florus  Magister  (of  Lyons) :  Liber  de  Praedestina- 
tione contra  Scoti  erroneas  Definitiones. 


194  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  CHARLEMAGNE      (Fourth 

Remigius  (Archbishop  of  Lyons) :  De  Tribus  Epistolis 
(against  Hincmar,  &c). 
855  By  the  influence  of  Remigius,  the  Council  of  Valence 

publishes  six  propositions  in  opposition  to  the  Four 
Capitula  of  the  late  Council  of  Chiersy.  These  contain 
a  modification  of  the  tenets  of  Gottschalk.  The  differ- 
ence was  now  rather  in  terms  than  in  substance  :  both 
parties  built,  in  fact,  upon  the  Augustinian  or  Anti-semi- 
pelagian  system. 


Continued  subdivisions  and  dismemberment  of  the 
Western  Empire. 

Lothaire  II.  King  of  Lorraine,  &c. 

*  Ethel  wolf  makes,  or  perhaps  renews,  a  grant 
(of  tithes  ?)  to  the  Church. 

#  Ethelwolf  undertakes  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 

The  Bulgarians  manifest  a  disposition  to  receive  Chris- 
tianity. 

Christianity  had  hitherto  made  little  progress  in  Sweden. 
Ansgar  now  labours  in  that  country,  and  succeeds  in 
founding  a  church.  He  leaves  Erimbert  to  carry  on  the 
work  there,  and  devotes  himself,  during  the  remainder  of 
his  life,  as  Archbishop  of  Hamburgh  and  Bremen,  to  the 
conversion  of  the  Danes,  with  uncommon  piety,  industry, 
and  zeal. 

Cyril  and  Methodius,  Apostles  of  the  Slavi.  Cyril  trans- 
lates the  Bible  into  the  Slavonian  language. 


856  t  Rabanus  Maurus,  Archbishop  of  Mentz. 


858  Kingdom  of  Navarre  founded. 


Ignatius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  deposed  by  the 
profligate  Bardas,  regent  during  the  minority  of  Michael 
III.  Photius  made  patriarch.  Ignatius  refers  his  cause 
to  Nicholas,  who  sends  two  bishops  to  Constantinople,  as 
legates,  to  examine  and  decide. 

The  power  of  the  Papacy  increases  greatly  during  the  pon- 
tificate of  Nicholas. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.        195 

The  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals  begin  to  acquire 
general  currency  and  credit.  Pope  Nicholas  I.  cited 
them  as  genuine.  Objections  against  their  genuineness 
overborne  by  the  voice  of  authority. 

(They  were  held  in  high  repute  until  the  Reformation, 
when  the  forgery  was  exposed.  Romish  writers  at  first 
defended  them  as  genuine  ;  but  at  length  abandoned  the 
position.) 

Hincmar  and  Remigius  agree  to  unite  in  a  common 
exposition  of  faith,  to  be  published  by  a  council.  The 
council  never  held.  Hincmar  continues  to  write  against 
Gottschalk;  and  difference  of  opinion  on  the  disputed 
point  continues  in  the  Church. 


Bogoris,  King  of  the  Bulgarians,  professes  Christianity. 
After  a  short  struggle  with  his  heathen  subjects,  Christi- 
anity was  established  in  his  dominions. 


The  papal  legates  agree  with  the  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople, in  confirming  the  deposition  of  Ignatius  and  ap- 
pointment of  Photius. 


Lothaire  II.,  of  Thuringia,  anxious  to  put  away  his 
queen  Theutberga,  in  favour  of  the  licentious  Waldrade. 
Archbishops  of  Cologne  and  Treves  favour  his  design. 
Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  held  this  year,  pronounces 
the  divorce.  Hincmar  of  Rheims  protests  against  the 
decree. 

The  Russian  Monarchy  founded  by  Ruric. 
Olaf   Trygvesen    attempts    to   plant    Christianity    in 
Iceland  by  force ;  but  without  effect.     In  the  course  of 
the  next  century,  the  Gospel  was  gradually  propagated  in 
that  country. 

The  Council  of  Mentz  confirms  the  decree  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  But  Nicholas  declares  it  null,  and  deposes  the 
Archbishops  of  Cologne  and  Treves. 

o  2 


196  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE  (Fourth 

Moravians  apply  to  the  Greek  Church  for  missionaries. 
Cyril  and  Methodius  sent  to  them. 


863  Hincmar,  at  the  Council  of  Soissons,  deposes  Rothad, 

Bishop  of  Soissons,  notwithstanding  his  appeal  to  the 
pope. 

In  a  council  at  Rome,  Nicholas  excommunicates  his 
legates,  declares  Photius  deposed,  and  recognises  Ignatius 
as  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

86-i  The  deposed  archbishops  of  Cologne  and  Treves  pro- 

test against  the  conduct  of  the  pope,  as  being  an  undue 
usurpation  of  authority  by  one  who  is  no  more  than  their 
equal ;  but  in  vain.  Nicholas  perseveres  in  maintain- 
ing the  sanctity  and  inviolability  of  marriage,  against 
Lothaire. 

Nicholas  humbles  Hincmar,  the  strenuous  defender  of 
the  liberty  of  the  Gallican  National  Church.  He  com- 
mands him  either  to  restore  Rothad  forthwith,  or  to 
submit  the  examination  of  his  case  to  Rome  ;  maintaining 
that  the  pope  alone  is  sovereign  judge  in  the  affairs  of 
bishops,  and  that  no  council  can  pronounce  sentence  con- 
cerning them  except  by  his  authority.  He  supports  these 
principles  by  reference  to  the  Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals. 
Rothad  restored  to  his  bishopric  by  the  pope  in  865. 


Frequent  discoveries  of  bones  and  relics  of  saints,  &c. 
long  since  dead,  many  of  whom  had  been  hitherto  un- 
known or  forgotten. 


Anastasius,  Librarian  at  Rome,  fl. 
865  (al.  851.)  t  Paschasius  Radbert. 


Lothaire  obliged  to  receive  again  Theutberga  as  his 
queen.     Waldrade  sent  to  Rome  to  do  penance  there. 

j*  Ansgar,  Apostle  of  the  North.     After  his  death  arose 
many  obstructions  to  the  propagation  of  Christianity  in 
Denmark  and    Sweden ;   but   it   eventually    retained   its 
ground  in  those  countries. 
866  Christianity  had  been  introduced  into  Bulgaria  from 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.  197 

the  Greek  church;  but  Bogoris,  after  a  communication 
with  Nicholas,  prefers  the  jurisdiction  of  Rome  to  that  of 
Constantinople,  and  forms  a  connexion  with  the  Roman 
see. 

to  871.  *  Conquests  and  ravages  of  the  Danes  in 
England. 

Basil,  Emp.  East. 
Beginning  of  the  Macedonian  dynasty. 

The  court  of  Constantinople  had  espoused  the  cause  of 
Photius,  in  opposition  to  Ignatius;  but  Basil  is  now  inclined 
to  favour  the  latter. 

During  the  reign  of  Basil,  Crete  and  Sicily  are  reco- 
vered from  the  Arabs. 


Photius  convenes  a  council  of  Oriental  bishops  at  Con- 
stantinople, in  which  the  pope  is  (pro  forma)  deposed  and 
excommunicated.  The  Roman  Church  charged  with 
maintaining  sundry  errors,  especially  in  the  doctrine  re- 
lating to  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  with  having  corrupted  the 
Niceno-Constantinopolitan  creed. 

From  this  period  we  may  date  the  open  and  final 

Schism  between   the    Eastern    and    Western 
Churches. 

Besides  the  controversy  respecting  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  there  are  many  other  causes  of  disagreement 
between  the  Western  and  Greek  Churches.  The  former 
received  only  50,  the  latter  85,  Apostolical  Canons  as 
genuine;  the  former  forbad  priests,  the  latter  permitted 
them  (except  bishops),  to  live  with  their  wives  after 
ordination,  if  previously  married;  the  former  denied, 
the  latter  affirmed,  that  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
was  equal  in  rank  to  the  pope  of  Rome ;  the  former 
permitted,  the  latter  forbad,  fasting  on  Saturdays,  the 
eating  of  blood,  &c.  and  the  representation  of  Christ 
under  the  figure  of  a  lamb.  Lastly,  also,  a  dispute  had 
arisen  between  the  patriarch  and  the  pope  concerning 
jurisdiction  over  Bulgaria. 

to  869.  Basil  invites  Adrian  to  decide  between  the 
o  3 


198  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE  (Fourth 

claims  of  Photius  and  Ignatius.  A  council  at  Rome 
(868)  annuls  the  acts  of  the  late  council  at  Constantinople, 
deposes  Photius,  and  recognises  Ignatius  as  patriarch. 
All  this  was  confirmed  by  a  new  council  at  Constan- 
tinople (869). 

§53  Moravians  incline   to  a  connexion  with  Rome.    Cyril 

and  Methodius  invited  to  Rome.  Cyril  dies  there.  Me- 
thodius returns  as  bishop  of  the  Moravian  Church. 


The  Canons  of  Worms  contain  a  total  prohibition  of  mar- 
riage for  all  the  clergy. 

T  Ratramn  (otherwise  called  Bertram). 


869  The  kingdom  of  Lothaire  II.  divided,  after  his  death, 

between  Charles  the  Bald  and  Louis  the  German. 

The  pope  asserts  the  rights  of  Louis  II. ;  Hincmar   of 
Rheims  espouses  the  cause  of  Charles  the  Bald. 


Gottschalk  dies  in  confinement.  Refusing  to  retract, 
he  is  denied  the  privilege  of  partaking  of  the  eucharist 
before  his  death. 


87O  All  Latin  priests  compelled  to  quit  Bulgaria. 


Charles  the  Bald  at  first  asserts  the  rights  of  the  tem- 
poral power  and  the  national  church  of  France  against 
the  claims  of  the  pope.     He  supports  Hincmar  against 
Nicholas. 
871  *  Alfred  the  Great,  King  of  England. 


Hincmar  of  Rheims,  with  the  Council  of  Douzi,  deposes 
his  nephew  Hincmar,  Bishop  of  Laon.  The  pope,  claim- 
ing to  be  the  only  judge  of  bishops,  according  to  the 
forged  Decretals,  protests  against  their  proceedings.  Hinc- 
mar, backed  by  the  power  of  Charles,  maintains  his 
ground.  He  inveighs  strongly  against  the  validity  of  the 
Decretals. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.    199 

871  The  Paulicians  had  continued  to  harass  the  neighbour- 

ing Greeks  from  Tephrica.  After  the  destruction  of 
their  chief  town  by  Basil,  which  took  place  this  year, 
they  continued  to  exist  as  a  separate  party,  and  were 
zealous  in  the  propagation  of  their  doctrines,  especially  in 
Bulgaria. 

George,  Metropolitan  of  Nicomedia,  remarkable  for  his 
zeal  in  advancing  the  honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
Masses  in  honour  of  saints. 


Charles  the  Bald,  in  hope  of  being  made  emperor  by 
the  favour  of  the  pope,  yields  to  the  papal  claims  of  eccle- 
siastical monarchy,  and  is  ready  to  sacrifice  the  rights  of 
the  civil  governor  and  of  the  national  church. 

Notwithstanding  the  protestations  of  Hincmar,  Anse- 
gisus,  Archbishop  of  Sens,  is  appointed  vicar  apostolic  in 
France. 

875  Charles  the  Bald  crowned  Emperor  and  king  of  Italy. 
Charles  the  Bald  resigns  the  imperial  right  of  giving 

consent  to  the  consecration  of  the  bishops  of  Rome,  and 
then  confirming  the  election.  He  accepts  the  empire  as 
a  donation  from  the  pope. 

The  bishop  of  Rome  is  now  styled  Papa  Universalis, 
Vicarius  Petri  et  Pauli. 

The  connection  of  the  Moravian  Church  with  Rome 
confirmed. 

t  Ado,  Archbishop  of  VTienne,  martyrologist. 

876  The  Mohammedans  push  their  conquests  as  far  as  Rome ; 
are  bought  off  by  a  yearly  tribute. 

The  kingdom  of  Germany  divided. 


877  The  doctrine  of  the  merit  of  good  works  (especially 

such  as  benefactions  to  the  Church  and  almsgiving)  had 
long  been  established.  Charles  the  Bald,  in  making  a 
donation  to  a  monastery,  in  the  year  877,  says,  —  Si 
servorum  Dei  utilitatibus  subveniendo  conferimus,  pro- 
futurum  nobis  hoc  ad  agternam  beatitudinem  fore,  nullo 
modo  ambigimus. 

o  4 


200  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE       (Fourth 

The  Russians  evince  a  disposition  to  embrace  Chris- 
tianity. They  request  the  presence  of  a  Greek  bishop. 
Subsequently,  hostilities  between  Greeks  and  Russians 
retarded  the  progress  of  Christianity  in  Russia. 


878  Violent  contests  between  Rome  and  Constantinople  re- 

specting the  jurisdiction  of  Bulgaria,     j  Ignatius.   Photius 
again  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 


*  The  Danes,  having  been  reduced  by  Alfred,  receive 
permission  to  settle  in  England,  on  condition  of  their  em- 
bracing Christianity;  —  baptized,  —  with  Guthrun  their 
king. 

#  Alfred  is  said  to  have  instituted  a  literary  society  at 
Oxford,  and  even  to  have  founded  a  college  there  (Uni- 
versity College).  But  the  establishment  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  must  be  referred  to  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 

#■  It  is  probable,  from  the  omission  of  the  second  com- 
mandment in  the  laws  of  Alfred,  that  image-worship  was 
now  established  in  England.     If  so,  the  practice  was  of 
recent  introduction  in  this  country. 
879  Foundation  of  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy  Cisjurana ; 

the  bishops  bestow  it  upon  Boson,  the  pope's  favourite. 
Christians  at  Kiev,  in  Russia. 


Papal  legates  at  Constantinople,  with  a  view  to  settle 
differences.  The  pope  promises  to  recognise  Photius  as 
patriarch  on  condition  of  his  seeking  forgiveness  for  his 
offences  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  foregoing  all 
claims  upon  Bulgaria.  Photius  not  disposed  to  yield  so 
far.  The  pope  pronounces  a  fresh  anathema  against  him, 
and  all  who  should  recognise  him  as  patriarch. 

Methodius  accused  of  celebrating  divine  service  in  the 
Slavonian  language.  The  Pope,  John  VIII.,  prohibits 
the  use  of  a  vernacular  tongue  in  the  celebration  of  the 
mass,  but  sanctions  it  in  preaching. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vn.    201 

Methodius,  having  defended  his  practice  at  Rome 
(880),  obtains  from  the  pope  a  remarkable  permission  to 
celebrate  all  offices  of  divine  worship  in  the  Slavonian 
language,  only  with  an  injunction  to  read  the  gospel  in 
Greek  or  Latin  before  reading  it  in  Slavonian,  as  a 
mark  of  respect. 

*  Saxon  translation  of  the  Psalms  by  Alfred.  That 
prince  published  also  the  works  of  Orosius,  Bede,  and 
Boethius,  in  Saxon,  and  a  translation  of  the  Pastoral  of 
Gregory. 

Charles  the  Fat,  King  of  Italy. 


f  Hincmar,  Archbishop  of  Rheims. 

Charles  the  Fat,  as  sole  monarch,  re-unites  the  Western 
Empire.. 

*  Alfred  sent  an  embassy  to  the  Syrian   Christians  in 
India. 

Leo  VI.  (the  Philosopher)  Emp.  East. 
Photius  deposed  by  the   emperor ;  but  no  real  recon- 
ciliation with  Rome  took  place. 


-*-  T  John  Scotus  Erigena. 


Charles  deposed. 
Western  Empire  finally  dismembered. 
Arnulph  elected  Emperor  of  Germany. 
The  Crown  henceforth  elective. 
The  kingdom  of  Burgundy  Transjurane  founded   by 
Rudolph. 

Italy  a  distinct  kingdom. 


The    new  emperor  of  Germany  swears  allegiance  to 
the  pope. 

Photius  dies  in   exile.     After  his  death   the   disputes 
between  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  continued.     Nor 


202 


894 


898 
899 

End  of 

THE 

Ninth 
Cen- 
tury. 


FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE  (Fourth 

was  a  cordial  and  permanent  agreement  between  the  East 
and  West  ever  effected;  although,  in  the  course  of  the 
following  (tenth)  century,  the  violence  of  the  contest  con- 
siderably abated. 

The  King  of  the  Bohemians  baptized  by  Methodius. 
After  this  there  was  a  long  struggle  between  Paganism 
and  Christianity  in  Bohemia. 

Charles  the  Simple,  King  of  France. 
Louis,  Emperor  of  Germany. 


Ecclesiastical  Supremacy. 

Bishops  now  not  only  claim  part  with  princes  in  the 
government  of  their  kingdoms,  but  require  princes  them- 
selves to  be  subject  to  the  Church.  The  pope  had  already 
told  an  emperor  that  he  occupied  his  throne  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  the  Church.  Quarrels  between 
different  princes  had  greatly  contributed  to  the  establish- 
ment of  this  ecclesiastical  supremacy. 

Exemptions  of  monasteries  from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and 
their  immediate  subjection  to  the  pope  ;  —  assertion  of  the 
principle  that  bishops  derived  their  power  from  the  pope  ;  — 
general  councils  convened  by  command  of  the  pope  ;  —  appeals 
from  General  Councils  to  the  pope. 

The  celibacy  of  the  clergy  had  now  given  rise  to  scan- 
dalous vices,  and  abuses  beyond  number. 

The  wealth  of  the  Church  continues  to  be  greatly  aug- 
mented by  means  of  superstition  and  imposture. 

In  the  West,  the  theory  of  Christian  morals  had  now 
suffered  fresh  debasement  by  means  of  translations  of  the 
mystic  writings  attributed  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite. 

Christian  doctrine  was  obscured  and  deteriorated  by  the 
controversies  which  were  agitated  during  this  century 
concerning  image-worship,  the  eucharist,  and  predes- 
tination. But  the  very  existence  of  these  controversies, 
and  various  passages  in  the  writings  of  authors  of  this 
date  show  that  some  remnants  of  great  Christian  truth 
were  at  least  partially  retained. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.  203 


End< 

medans,  had  now  become  dominant  in  Egypt. 


OF        The  Monophysites,  by  the  assistance  of  the  Moham- 

NlNTH 

Cen- 
tury. 

The  Festivals  of  St.  Michael  the  Archangel,  of  All 
Saints,  and  of  the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  were 
introduced  in  the  Frankish  churches  during  this  cen- 
tury. 

(But  it  was  not  until  the  thirteenth  century  that  the 
bodily  ascension  of  the  Virgin  was  taught.) 


Christianity  propagated  from  Moravia  to  Bohemia. 


Schools  and  Literary  Institutions  suffer  decay  during  this 
century. 
Attempts  were  made  to  refute  Mohammedan  errors ; 
but  the  age  did  not  possess  divines  equal  to  the  task. 


Scandalous  practices  for  obtaining  the  pontifical  dignity 
prevail  about  this  time. 


Aristocratical  government  of  the  nobles  in  Rome  and 
its  neighbourhood. 

Christianity  introduced  among  the  Hungarians  from 
Constantinople. 

Turks  obtain  authority  in  the  Caliphate  of  Bagdad. 
Foundation  of  the  Dynasty  of  the  Fatimites  in  Western 
Africa. 

The  canons  of  Trosley  provide  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  rights,  privileges,  and  revenues  of  the  clergy.  Tithes 
declared  due,  not  only  from  the  produce  of  the  soil,  but 
from  the  fruits  of  labour  and  industry.  N.B.  From  the 
eighth  century  until  the  eleventh,  claims  for  the  payment 
of  tithes  were  continually  enforced,  and  frequently  re- 
sisted. 

During  the  greater  part  of  this  century  the  election  of 


204  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE  (Fourth 

popes  was  influenced  by  a  faction  in  the  state.  Men  of 
the  most  corrupt  morals  and  dissolute  lives  were  now 
continually  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Church. 

Theological  literature  was  now  at  its  lowest  ebb.  The 
efforts  which  had  been  made  by  Alfred  the  Great  for  the 
continuance  and  promotion  of  sound  religious  learning 
remained  ineffectual. 

Controversy  was  hushed  in  ignorance  and  apathy. 


The  worship  of  saints ;  as  supposed  intercessors  with  God, 
had  continually  increased.  It  was  now  universally  prac- 
tised, and  in  high  repute.  Many  churches  and  monas- 
teries were  erected  and  richly  endowed  in  honour  of  these 
imaginary  favourites. 
910  The  Monastery  of  Clugny, 

founded  by  Berno  ;  who  follows  up  the  efforts  of  Bene- 
dict of  Aniane  for  the  reformation  of  monastic  orders,  by 
uniting  several  societies  under  one  common  head. 


911  Alexander,  Emp.  East. 
Rollo,  the  Dane,  having  obtained  the  cession  of  Nor- 
mandy, is  baptized.     He  assumes  the   title   of  Robert, 
Duke  of  Normandy. 

912  CONSTANTINE  VII.  (PORPHYROGENITUS)    EMP.  EAST 
(under  his  mother,  Zoe). 


Persecution   of  Christians   in   Denmark   under   King 


Gorm. 


t  Moses  Barcepha,  a  Jacobite. 
Simeon  Metaphrastes,  jl. 


916  Berenger  I.  King  of  Italy,  Emperor  of  the  West. 

919  Rom  anus  (Lecapenus)  Emp.  East, 

with  his  three  sons,  Christopher,   Stephen,  Constantine 

VIII. 

Henry  the  Fowler,  King  of  Germany. 

923  Lorraine  finally  re-united  to  the  crown  of  Germany. 

924  to  940.     #  Athelstan,  King  of  England. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.    205 

*  During  this  reign,  Christianity  continually  gains  a 
firmer  footing  in  England. 

During  the  former  half  of  this  century,  the  Hungarians 
make  desolating  inroads  into  Germany  and  Italy. 


|  Berno.  Odo  (927 — 941)  prosecutes  his  plans.  The 
monastery  of  Clugny  under  its  early  abbots  (after  Berno 
and  Odo,  Aymard  to  948,  Mayol  to  994,  Odilo  to  1048) 
distinguished  by  the  severity  of  its  discipline  and  its  strict 
observance  of  ascetic  rules,  by  its  zealous  and  efficient 
labours  in  the  education  of  youth,  and  in  the  cause  of  art 
and  science. 

The  two  kingdoms  of  Burgundy  united  under  Ro- 
dolph  II. 

The  pope  presents  to  the  monastery  of  Corbey  a  rib  of 
the  Evangelist  St.  Matthew,  and  a  relic  of  the  Apostle 
St.  Andrew. 


Henry  I.  defeats  the  Hungarians. 


Henry  procures  from  Gorm  the  toleration  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Denmark. 

Fierce  contests  between  the  Heathen  and  Christian 
parties  in  Bohemia. 

The  Caliphs  of  Bagdad  lose  their  political  power,  which 
remains  in  the  hands  of  Ahmed  the  Buyide  and  his  de- 
scendants, under  the  title  of  Emir  al  Omrah. 
Otho  the  Great,  King  of  Germany. 


Hakon,  King  of  Norway,  a  Christian,  attempts  to  esta- 
blish Christianity  in  his  dominions,  but  without  effect. 
He  died  in  950. 

Boleslas  I.  King  of  Bohemia ;  under  him,  Paganism 
was  in  the  ascendant. 


Anthropomorphites  condemned  as  heretics. 


206 


FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE       (Fourth 

About  this  time  Unni,  Archbishop  of  Hamburg  and 
Bremen,  dies  in  Sweden,  where  he  had  laboured  for  the 
propagation  of  the  Gospel  with  great  success.  Mission- 
aries,  who  were  sent  by  his  successors,  prosecuted  the 
work. 

Great  opposition  to  Christianity  in  Bohemia.  War 
with  the  empire  fourteen  years  (936 — 920). 


945  Constantine  VII.  Emp.  East,  restored. 

Berenger  II.  King  of  Italy. 
Boleslas  compelled  by  Otho  I.  to  permit  the  restoration 
of  the  Christian  Church  in  Bohemia. 

Gylas,  Hungarian  prince,  baptized  at  Constantinople. 
Harald  II.  King  of  Denmark,  embraces  Christianity. 
950  Continual  civil   wars   in  France  between   the  barons 

throughout  this  century. 


The  differences  which  existed  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches,  and  those  which  had  arisen  within  the 
latter  concerning  predestination  and  the  eucharist,  were 
not  settled ;  but,  amidst  the  barbarism  of  this  century, 
controversy  was  suspended. 

A  very  general  expectation  of  the  approaching  end  of 
the  world  prevails. 

During  this  century,  erroneous  doctrines  concerning 
purgatory,  the  veneration  of  saints,  and  the  eucharist,  gain 
ground.  (The  opinion  of  some  persons,  who  maintained 
that  the  Archangel  Michael  says  mass  every  Monday  in 
heaven,  was  condemned  as  heretical.) 


The  spiritual  character  of  the  superior  clergy  is  now,  to  a 
great  extent,  merged  in  that  of  secular  princes,  or  military 
commanders. 

■*  Dunstan,  Abbot  of  Glastonbury,  endeavours  to  re- 
form the  Church  by  establishing  the  rule  of  Benedict  in 
the  English  monasteries,  and  enforcing  the  celibacy  of 
the  clergy. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.  207 

950  t  Eutychius,  Bishop  of  Alexandria. 

CEcumenius  fl. 


Otho  invades  Italy.     Berenger  submits. 


*  Christianity  introduced  among  the  Normans  in  Ire- 
land. 

Marriage   of  the    clergy   strictly   prohibited    by    the 
Council  of  Augsburg. 

Baptism  of  bells  by  the  pope. 


Otho  drives  the  Hungarians  out  of  Italy. 


Olga,  a  Russian  princess,  baptized  at  Constantinople. 
Adelbert  afterwards  preaches  the  Gospel  in  Russia.  The 
general  conversion  of  the  Russian  people  proceeds,  how- 
ever, but  slowly. 

Romanus  II.  Emp.  East. 


The  Bulgarians  conform  to  the  Church  of  Rome. 


Otho  the  Great  resumes  the  imperial  right  of  con- 
firming the  election  of  popes  (see  875).  He  proceeds 
to  appoint  popes  by  his  own  authority. 


t  Atto,  Bishop  of  Vercelli.     He  wrote  a  commentary 
on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 


The  collegiate  bodies  of  clergy  established  by  Chro- 
degang  partake  of  the  general  corruption  of  the  order. 
The  canonical  clergy  aim  chiefly  to  render  themselves 
independent  of  the  bishops,  and  to  secure  their  respective 
shares  of  the  collegiate  income  (prebends). 


Otho,  King  of  France,  makes  a  second  expedition  into 
Italy.     Berenger  dethroned. 


208  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE     (Fourth 

Otho  crowned  King  of  Italy  and  Emperor, 
From  this  time  to  1508  no  king  of  Germany  took  the 
title  of  emperor  until  after  he  had  been  crowned  by  the 
pope. 

962  *  Dunstan,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  imposes  upon 
Edgar  seven  years'  penance. 

963  Nicephorus  II.  {Phocas)  Emp.  East. 
The   emperor   (Otho),   enraged  at   the  perfidy  of  the 

pope,  caused  him  to  be  deposed  by  a  council  held  in  St. 
Peter's  Church  at  Rome.  Leo  VIII.  made  pope  in  his 
room. 

Otho  confirmed  the  grants  of  Charlemagne  to  the  pope. 

965  — 975.  Nicephorus  makes  successful  expeditions  against 
the  Caliphate,  and  extends  the  Eastern  Empire.  Cyprus, 
Cilicia,  and  Antioch,  recovered. 

In  the  East,  Nicephorus  enacts  that  no^bishop  shall  be 
consecrated  without  consent  of  the  emperor :  —  this  law 
was  soon  after  repealed  by  Basil. 

Christianity  propagated  from  Bohemia  to  Poland. 

966  Micislaus,  Duke  of  Poland,  baptized.  He  founds  the 
bishopric  of  Posen,  and  endeavours  to  establish  Chris- 
tianity in  Poland. 

Harald  Harfragre,  King  of  Norway,  suppresses  idolatry. 


f  Flodoard  of  Rheims. 


Q57  Otho  II.  joint  Emperor  of  the  West. 

Boleslas  II.  King  of  Bohemia.  Christianity  in  the 
ascendant,  and  finally  established  in  his  dominions.  After 
this  time,  Paganism  gradually  becomes  extinct  in  those 
parts. 

Many  bishoprics  founded  in  Germany  about  this  time. 
The  emperor  exercises  the  right  of  investiture. 


968  f  Luitprand,  Bishop  of  Cremona. 


The  Fatimite  Caliphs  of  Africa  in  possession  of  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  Sicily.     Grand  Cairo  founded. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.         209 

John  Zimisces,  Emp.  East. 
Successes  against  the  Bulgarians  in  Syria. 
Otho  and  his  successors  bestowed  large  grants  of  land 
upon  the  bishops;  who  received  towns,  counties,  and 
entire  dukedoms,  with  the  prerogatives  of  royalty,  such  as 
justiciary  powers,  the  right  of  coining  money,  and  of 
levying  tolls  and  other  revenues. 

The  great  power  of  the  clergy  becomes  highly  injurious 
to  the  imperial  authority. 


*  Marriage  of  the  clergy  in  England  forbidden,  under 
pain  of  deprivation. 

#  In  England,  violent  disputes  between  the  married 
clergy  and  the  monks  prevailed  about  this  time.  Dun- 
stan,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  a  great  patron  of 
the  monks. 

The  Emperor,  John  Zimisces,  removes  a  great  part  of 
the  Paulicians  to  Philippopolis  in  Thrace,  where  he  gives 
them  a  settlement.  This  circumstance  contributed  to 
the  propagation  of  their  tenets  in  Europe ;  and  to  their 
influence  may  perhaps  be  traced  the  rise  of  various  sects 
of  mystics  in  the  Western  Churches,  such  as  existed 
during  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  in  Italy,  France, 
and  Germany.  The  Paulicians  were  charged  with  hold- 
ing Manichsean  or  Gnostic  opinions ;  but  they  were  chiefly 
distinguished  by  their  strict  and  zealous  observance  of 
practical  religion.  The  sects  which  afterwards  arose 
conformed  to  the  external  rites  and  worship  of  the  domi- 
nant church,  and  were  distinguished  chiefly  by  the 
strictness  of  their  lives,  and  by  aiming  at  higher  degrees 
of  piety,  and  purer  morals,  than  such  as  generally  prevailed 
among  the  Catholics  of  their  day. 


Harald,  King  of  Denmark,  having  made  peace  with 
Otho,  is  baptized,  and  becomes  zealous  for  the  propagation 
of  Christianity  in  his  dominions. 

Christianity  makes  progress  in  Hungary,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Prince  Geysa. 


210  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE       (Fourth 

973  Bishopric  of  Prague  founded. 

The  pope  (Boniface  VII.)   deposed  and  banished  for 
his  crimes. 

Otho  II.  Emp.  West. 


974  f  Ratherius,  Bishop  of  Verona  ;   distinguished  by  his 

zealous  efforts  to  check  the  corruption  of  the  clergy,  and 
to  promote  their  usefulness. 


97  «5  Harald,  King  of  Denmark,  having  conquered  Norway 

in  962,  endeavours  to  establish  Christianity  in  that 
country.  His  attempts  are  resisted,  and  the  Norwegians, 
under  Haken,  throw  off  his  yoke. 


976  Basil  II.  and  Constantine  IX.  Emp.  East. 


|  Simeon  Metaphrastes. 

Reformation    of  the   order    of  Canons.     Distinction 
between  Canons  Regular  and  Canons  Secular. 


982  Greenland   discovered   by    Norwegians.     Christianity 

introduced  soon  afterwards. 

Otho  makes  Geisler  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  in 
place  of  another  chosen  by  the  chapter. 

Slavonians  return  to  Paganism,  having  been  formerly 
compelled  by  the  Germans  to  embrace  Christianity. 


983  Otho  III.  Emp.  West 

(under  his  mother  Theophania). 


984  T  Roswitha,  a  Latin  poetess. 

987  Hugh  Capet,  King  of  France. 

End  of  the  Carlovignian  dynasty  ;  foundation  of  the 
Capetian. 


988  Wladimir  (Basil  I.)  Grand-duke  of  Kiev,  invites  Christ- 

ian  bishops  and   clergy  to  Russia,  and  founds  several 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.  211 

bishoprics  (one  archbishopric  at  Kiev,  another  at  Novo- 
gorod). 

The  Greek  ritual  was  introduced  into  Russia  by  Wla- 
dimir.     Schools  and  convents  founded. 


*  T  Dunstan,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
*  Danes  make  the  English  tributary. 


Hugh  Capet  procures  the  deposition  of  Arnulph,  Bishop 
of  Rheims,  by  a  council  held  in  that  city,  and  the  election 
of  Gerbert'in  his  room.  Absolute  supremacy  of  the  pope, 
and  the  claims  founded  upon  the  forged  Decretals,  con- 
temptuously denied. 

Harald,  King  of  Denmark,  deposed  by  the  influence 
of  the  pagan  party  in  his  dominions,  with  his  son  Sveyn 
at  their  head.  Sveyn  king;  destruction  of  Christian 
establishments,  and  suppression  of  Christianity  in  Den- 
mark.  

Peter  Urseolo  II.  Doge  of  Venice;  regarded  by  the 
Venetians  as  the  founder  of  their  state. 

First  instance  on  record  of  the  Canonization  of  a  Saint 
(Ulric,  Bishop  of  Augsburg),  by  the  pope,  in  a  Lateran 
Council. 

Continued  growth  of  Superstition.  Worship  of  Saints  and 
Images  increases. 

Saturday  is  distinguished  by  special  worship,  in  honour 
of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

Some  suppose  that  Rosaries  came  into  use  before  the 
close  of  this  century. 

The  Eucharist.  Gerbert  maintained  that  it  is  best  to 
say  simply,  without  further  definition,  and  in  accordance 
with  our  Saviour's  own  words,  that  the  bread  and  wine  in 
the  eucharist  are  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  (but  to 
be  apprehended  only  by  faith).  This  plea  for  moderation 
in  the  statement  of  the  doctrine  produced,  however,  but 
little  effect.     Transubstantiation  was  generally  believed  ; 

p    2 


212  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE         (Fourth 

and  in  the  course  of  the  following  century  a  contradiction 
of  the  doctrine  was  accounted  heresy. 

996  Otho  III.  crowned  Emperor. 

997  Robert,  King  of  France.     Stephen  I.  King  of  Hungary. 


A  struggle  for  the  papacy  between  Gregory  V.  and 
John  XVI.  or  XVII. 

Robert  was  not  disposed  to  persevere  in  the  struggle 
maintained  by  Hugh  Capet  against  the  papal  pretensions. 
Council  of  Rheims,  held  this  year  under  the  presidency 
of  the  pope's  legate,  annuls  the  acts  of  the  former  council. 
Gerbert  deposed.     Arnulph  restored. 

Adalbert  of  Prague  preaches  the  Gospel  in  Prussia, 
where  he  suffers  persecution,  and  is  put  to  death,  997. 
The  Gospel  makes  no  progress  in  that  country. 

Micislaus,  Duke  of  Poland,  places  his  country  under  the 
protection  of  St.  Peter,  i.  e.  the  Pope. 

Christians  in  Spain  overpowered  by  the  Arabs. 

(995 — 1000.)  Christianity  established  in  Norway  by  the 
King,  Olaf  Trygvesen,  who  attributed  his  former  successes 
in  battle  to  a  shield  bearing  a  figure  of  Christ,  which 
had  been  given  him  by  a  Saxon  priest.  He  exercised 
great  violence  and  cruelty  towards  the  heathen  priests, 
and  was  killed  in  battle  in  the  year  1000,  when  the 
kings  of  Sweden  and  Denmark  became  masters  of  his 
country  until  1017.  They  tolerated  all  religions  in 
Norway. 

998  Feast  of  All  Souls,  instituted  at  Clugny,  for  the  re- 
demption of  souls  from  purgatory;  it  having  been  said 
that,  on  occasion  of  an  eruption  of  flame  in  Sicily,  the 
devils  had  been  heard  to  lament  the  fact,  that  many  souls 
had  been  delivered  from  their  torments  by  means  of  alms- 
giving and  prayers,  and  especially  by  those  of  the  monks 
of  Clugny. 

999  Gerbert  (Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  998)  made  Pope 
(Silvester  II.)  by  the  influence  of  the  emperor,  whose  tutor 
he  had  been. 

This  year  Silvester  first  suggests  the  idea  of  the  Cru- 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.    213 

sades,  in  an  "  Epistola  ex  persona  Hierusalem  devastates 
ad  Universalem  Ecclesiam." 

Robert,  King  of  France,  compelled  by  the  pope  to 
divorce  his  queen  Bertha. 

(997 — 1038.)  Christianity  finally  established  inHunyary, 
under  King  Stephen  L,  and  propagated  thence  to  Tran- 
sylvania and  Wallachia,  by  force  of  arms.  Finally  estab- 
lished in  Bohemia  (999). 


The  system  of  Ecclesiastical  Benefices  may  now  be 
considered  as  completed  and  established. 

It  had  now  become  usual  for  papal  legates  to  convene 
and  preside  in  councils  assembled  in  foreign  lands. 


1000        Huns,  Avars,  and  other  Barbarians, — also,  the  Persians 
and  Russians, —  harass  the  Eastern  Empire. 

The  Seljukian  Turks  conquer  Asia  Minor. 
Norman  conquests  in  Italy. 


The  Greek  Church  is  rent  by  numerous  schisms. 


The  canons   of  the  Council   of  Poitiers  are  directed 
against  the  marriage  of  the  clergy,  and  simony. 

About  this  time,  all  persons  were  required  to  pray  for 
souls  in  purgatory  by  the  authority  of  the  pope. 
1001        Institution  of  an  annual  procession  with  relics  between 
Corbey  and  Amiens.     On  these  occasions  many  miracles 
are  said  to  have  been  wrought. 


1002        Henry  II.  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  King  of 

Italy. 


From  this  time,  the  dukes  of  Poland  make  many  fruit- 
less attempts  to  subdue  the  Pomeranians,  and  to  introduce 
Christianity  in  the  train  of  conquest.  Boleslas  I.  founded 
a  bishopric  at  Colberg  about  the  year  1000:  which,  how- 
ever, did  not  survive  the  death  of  its  first  bishop. 

Boleslas  I.  (995  — 1025)  promotes  the  spread  of  Christ- 
ianity in  Poland.     This  prince  was  very  submissive  to  the 

p  3 


214  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE       (Fourth 

superior  clergy,  not  presuming  to  sit  in  their  presence,  and 
submitting  to  all  the  penances  and  burdens  they  imposed. 
Sultan  Mahmoud,  a  Turk,  spreads  his  dominion  and 
Mohammedanism  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Ganges. 

1003        T  Gerbert.     He  planted  the  seeds  of  a  literary  taste 
in  Rheims,  and  in  France  generally. 


In  Denmark,  Sveyn  is  more  tolerant  of  Christianity 
than  formerly,  from  political  considerations. 

During  the  fresh  disturbances  which  arose  about  this 
time  in  Italy,  the  counts  of  Tuscoli  obtained  such  influ- 
ence, that  the  papal  dignity  became  completely  in  posses- 
sion of  their  family,  in  which  it  remained  for  a  long  time, 
as  it  were,  hereditary. 

1007  Bruno,  surnamed  Boniface,  with  eighteen  companions, 
preaches  the  Gospel,  and  attempts  to  found  a  church  in 
Prussia,  but  without  effect :  himself  and  his  whole  com- 
pany were  put  to  death  in  1008.  No  efforts  made  for 
the  conversion  of  the  Prussians  for  two  centuries  after- 
wards. 

Fulbert,  pupil  of  Gerbert,  Bishop  of  Chartres.  A 
school  of  theology  flourished  under  his  auspices.  He  was 
a  zealous  promoter  of  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

1008  Olaf,  King  of  Sweden,  baptized;  first  Christian  king 
of  that  nation.  He  promotes  the  cause  of  Christianity  in 
his  dominions,  chiefly  by  the  aid  of  English  clergy.  First 
Swedish  bishopric  founded. 

"  A  strange  mixture,  both  of  doctrine  and  worship,  long 
prevailed  in  Sweden,  where  Jesus  Christ  was  profanely 
associated  with  Odin,  and  the  pagan  goddess  Freya  con- 
founded with  the  Virgin."   (Koch.) 

1009  Sultan  Hakem  in  Egypt  persecutes  the  Christians. 


During  this  period,  the  papal  chair  is  usually  obtained  by 
the  most  nefarious  means.  In  general,  the  popes  themselves 
are  men  of  corrupt  morals  and  profligate  lives. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.    215 

1010  A  sect  in  Aquitaine  rejects  the  use  of  the  sign  of  the 
cross  and  baptism.  In  the  latter  particular  they  agreed 
with  the  Paulicians,  and  with  several  sects  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  who  substituted  imposition  of  hands  for  baptism. 


1016  *  Canute  the  Great,  King  of  England. 

Canute  was  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Church  of 
Rome. 

Pontius,  Bishop  of  Aries,  grants  indulgence,  or  absolu- 
tion of  sins,  on  consideration  of  contributions  in  aid  of 
building  churches. 

About  this  time  a  congregation  of  Hermits  is  founded 
in  a  part  of  the  Apennines,  Campus  Malduli,  Camaldoli. 
Camaldulensian  Order. 


(1014 — 1035.)  Christianity  finally  established  in  Den- 
mark, under  the  auspices  of  Canute  the  Great,  who  had 
married  Emma,  a  Christian  princess,  widow  of  the  Eng- 
lish king,  Ethelred. 

(1017—1033.)  Olaf  II.  King  of  Norway,  promotes  the 
final  establishment  of  Christianity  in  his  dominions,  partly 
by   persuasion,   partly  by   force ;    founds    churches    and 
schools.     Venerated  after  his  death  as  a  saint. 
Sardinia  recovered  from  the  Arabs. 


The  Brethren  of  Orleans, 
a  sect  denying  the  meritoriousness  of  human  works  ;  pro- 
pagating certain  Gnostic  errors;  professing  to  receive 
no  doctrine  but  such  as  is  written  by  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
the  inner  man.  Leaders  of  the  sect  summoned  before  an 
assembly  of  bishops.     Thirteen  members  put  to  death. 


1018  Bulgaria  again  a  province  of  the  Greek  Empire. 


1022        T  Notker   Labeo,  Abbot  of  St.  Gall.     He  translated 
some  books  of  Scripture. 

p  4 


216  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE       (Fourth 


1024 
1025 


Continued  struggles  of  the  See  of  Rome  with  the  emperors 
respecting  the  independency  of  papal  elections, 

Conrad  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Beginning  of  the  Franconian  or  Salic  dynasty. 

CONSTANTINE,    SOLE    EMPEROR    OF   THE    EAST. 


Nestorians  said  to  be  still  engaged  in  propagating  the 
Gospel  among  the  Tartars. 

Christians,  in  many  parts,  suffer  great  persecutions 
from  Saracens  and  Turks. 


A  sect,  in  the  diocese  of  Arras  and  Cambray,  insists 
upon  spirituality  of  mind  and  the  exercise  of  practical  re- 
ligion, to  the  disparagement  of  external  rites,  and  especi- 
ally of  infant  baptism.  Persuaded  by  Gerhard  to  cease 
their  opposition  to  the  Church. 

A  sect  near  Turin  maintains  that  the  whole  history  of 
Christ  is  to  be  regarded  as  only  an  allegorical  representa- 
tion of  the  spiritual  or  religious  life.  Several  members 
of  this  sect  put  to  death. 


1026  (al-  1005.)  t  Burkard,  Bishop  of  Worms. 

1027  End  °f tne  Caliphate  of  the  Ommiyades  in  Spain. 

1028  Roman  us  II.  Em  p.  East. 


t  Fulbert,  Bishop  of  Chartres. 


1031  Henry  I.  King  of  France. 

1032  Conrad  unites  the  Kingdom  of  Burgundy  to  the  Ger- 
man crown. 

Norman  conquests  in  Italy  and  Sicily. 

1033  The  French  bishops  and  abbots  appoint  Friday  in 
every  week  to  be  kept  sacred  as  a  day  of  penance,  in  which 
injuries  should  be  forgiven,  and  all  quarrels  and  litiga- 
tions should  be  suspended. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.         217 

1033        Benedict  raised  to  the  Papal  See,  at  the  age  of  ten  years, 
for  money.     His  life  was  most  profligate  and  scandalous. 


1034  Michael  IV.  Emp.  East. 

1036  Jaroslav,  head  of  all  Russia.  He  exerted  his  in- 
fluence (from  1019  until  1054)  in  favour  of  the  esta- 
blishment of  Christianity  in  his  dominions. 

1038  Togrul  Beg,  Emir  al  Omrah. 


An  order  of  Cenobites  founded  at  Vallombrosa,  in  the 
Apennines,  by  John  Gualbert. 


1039  Henry  III.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

(Under  him  the  Bohemians  and  Hungarians  become 
tributary.) 
1041  Michael  V.  Emp.  East. 


Treuga  Dei,  or  the  cessation  of  all  hostilities  and  liti- 
gations during  the  latter  part  of  the  week,  established  by 
authority  of  the  Church,  first  in  Aquitaine,  afterwards 
also  in  neighbouring  countries.     (See  1033.) 


1042  CONSTANTINE  X.  (MONOMACHTJS)  EMP.  EAST. 

*  Edward  the  Confessor,  King  of  England.    Saxon  line 
restored. 

Lanfranc,   a  monk  in  the  monastery  of  Bee  in  Nor- 
mandy. 

Theophanes  Ceramius,  Nil  us  Doxipatrius,  fl. 
1045  Bruno,  Bishop  of  Wurtzburg. 


1046  The  Council  of  Sutry  affirms  the  right  of  the  emperor 
to  nominate  to  the  Holy  See.  Plan  of  the  emperor  for  the 
reformation  of  ecclesiastical  abuses. 

"  The  whole  of  Christendom  composed,  as  it  were,  a 
single  and  individual  republic,  of  which  the  pope  was  the 
spiritual  head,  and  the  emperor  the  secular.  The  duty  of 
the  latter,  as  head  and  patron  of  the  Church,  was  to  take 
cognisance  that  nothing  should  be  done  contrary  to  the 


218  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE         (Fourth 

general  interests  of  Christianity.  It  was  his  part  to  pro- 
tect the  Catholic  Church,  to  be  the  guardian  of  its  pre- 
servation, to  convocate  its  general  councils,  and  exercise 
such  rights  as  the  nature  of  his  office  and  the  interests  of 
Christianity  seemed  to  demand."  (Koch.) 

From  Otho  the  Great  to  Henry  IV.  all  the  Roman 
pontiffs  were  chosen,  or  at  least  confirmed,  by  the  empe- 
ror. 

Three  rival  popes  deposed  by  the  Council  of  Sutry. 

From  this  time  the  rupture  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Churches  became  more  complete  and  irremediable  than  ever. 
Michael  Cerularius,  the  Patriarchof  Constantinople,  caused 
all  churches  and  monasteries  belonging  to  the  Latins  in 
Constantinople  to  be  shut  up.  The  ancient  controversy 
renewed,  and  the  breach  widened  by  agitating  a  question 
concerning  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  eucharist. 


False  doctrines  respecting  the  power  of  the  pope,  saints, 
the  merit  of  good  works,  and  transubstantiation,  acquire 
consistency  and  strength. 

Capital  punishment  for  (alleged)  heresy  had  now  become 
general. 

Profligacy  and  vice  abound  among  people  of  all  ranks 
and  conditions,  especially  among  the  clergy. 

Pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land  frequent  and  highly 
esteemed,  especially  in  connection  with  the  belief  in  the 
approaching  end  of  the  world,  which  still  prevails. 


1 048  Berenger  declares  his  doubts  concerning  the  doctrine  of 
Transubstantiation,  and  prefers  the  work  of  Scotus  on  the 
eucharist  to  that  of  Paschasius  Radbert. 

1050  Leo  condemns  Berenger  and  his  doctrine  in  a  council 
at  Rome.  The  Council  of  Vercelli,  in  the  same  year, 
zealously  condemns  the  tenets  of  Scotus  and  Berenger, 
concerning  the  eucharist.  The  treatise  of  Scotus  burnt. 
Berenger  imprisoned  before  the  assembling  of  the  latter 
council. 

Dismemberment  and  decline  of  the  Mohammedan  Cali- 
phate in  Spain. 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory vii.         219 

During  the  latter  part  of  this  century  (1041 — 1090), 
the  Normans  in  South  Italy  conquer  Apulia,  Calabria,  and 
Sicily,  from  the  Greeks. 


Idolatry  still  exists  in  Sweden,  especially  in  connection 
with  a  celebrated  temple  at  Upsal. 


Nicetas  Pectoratus,  fl.;  an  advocate  of  the  Greek  Church 
against  the  Latins. 

Michael  Psellius,  and  Michael  Cerularius,  fl. 


During  this  century,  the  popes  are  zealous  in  forcing 
the  Roman  customs  and  ceremonies  upon  other  churches; 
e.  g.  in  Spain.  Strong  representations  concerning  the  ne- 
cessity of  celebrating  divine  worship  in  Latin. 

Church  discipline,  as  in  past  centuries,  is  weak,  and  the 
subject  of  great  abuse. 

Offences  against  the  pope  and  clergy  were  visited  with 
more  severe  punishment  than  moral  transgressions. 

The  sentence  of  excommunication  against  temporal 
princes  was  often  employed  as  a  means  of  effecting  revo- 
lutions, or  for  other  political  purposes. 

Immunities,  &c.  granted  to  Crusaders  rendered  impo- 
sition of  penance,  in  a  great  degree,  nugatory. 


1052  A  sect>  near  Gorlac,  insists  upon  abstinence  from  ani- 
mal food.  Members  of  this  sect  put  to  death  by  order 
of  the  emperor. 

1053  Michael  Cerularius,  assisted  by  Leo,  Metropolitan 
of  Bulgaria,  vehemently  attacks  the  doctrines  and  cere- 
monies of  the  Romish  Church.  He  complains  especially 
of  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in  the  eucharist,  which  he 
denounces  as  heretical ;  and  brands  the  adherents  of  the 
custom  with  the  name  of  Azymites. 

Leo  published  a  defence  of  the  Latin  Church. 
The  emperor  is  unwilling,  from  political  motives,  that 
the  controversy  between  Michael  and  Leo  should  proceed. 

1054  Legates  sent  from  Rome  to  Constantinople  to  settle  the 


220 


FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE  (Fourth 


dispute  between  Michael  and  Leo.  A  Greek  monk,  Nicetas 
Pectoratus,  compelled  to  burn  his  book,  "  Against  the 
Latins,"  in  presence  of  the  legates.  Michael  highly  ex- 
asperated. Supported  by  the  clergy  and  people  against 
the  emperor.  Patriarch  and  Pope  excommunicate  each 
other. 

From  this  time  Hildebrand  obtains  continually  in- 
creasing influence  with  the  popes  and  superior  clergy. 
He  was  soon  at  the  head  of  a  party  in  the  Church,  and 
exerted  his  influence  to  carry  forward  a  plan  for  checking 
ecclesiastical  disorders,  advancing  the  clergy  in  efficiency 
and  reputation,  and  promoting  the  independence  of  the 
Church  with  regard  to  the  temporal  powers.  With  this 
view,  efforts  were  made  to  suppress  simony,  and  to  re- 
strain the  licentiousness  of  the  clergy  —  especially  to  en- 
force the  practice  of  clerical  celibacy  —  as  immediate 
means  of  diminishing  the  influence  of  princes,  nobles,  and 
wealthy  individuals,  in  relation  to  ecclesiastical  appoint- 
ments. 

1054  At  this  time  the  greater  part  of  the  temporal  possessions 
of  the  Holy  See  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  emperor 
and  neighbouring  princes. 

Leo  sends   commissioners  plenipotentiary  into  various 
parts  of  Europe,  with  a  view  to  promote  this  Reformation. 
Origin  of  papal  influence  by  means  of  legates. 


Berenger  declares,  at  the  Council  of  Tours,  that  he  does 
not  deny  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist,  but  re- 
gards the  bread  and  wine  after  consecration  as  his  body 
and  blood.  Hildebrand,  papal  legate  in  France,  declares 
himself  satisfied  with  this  declaration. 


Theodora,  Empress  of  the  East. 
(End  of  the  Macedonian  dynasty.) 
1055        The  Sultan  Togrul  Beg  captures  Bagdad,  and  becomes 
master  of  the  Caliphate. 

Michael  VI.  (Stratioticus)  Emp.  East. 
Henry  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
1057  Isaac  Comnenus,  Emp.  East. 


Period.)  TO  THE  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.         221 

1059  CONSTANTINE  IX.  (DUCAS)    EMP.  EAST. 

Robert  Guiscard  created  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria 
by  the  Pope,  to  whom  he  swears  allegiance. 


The  right  of  election  to  the  pontifical  chair  vested  in 
the  college  of  cardinals,  with  consent  of  the  people,  and 
approbation  of  the  emperor. 

Beginning  of  disputes  between  the  popes  and  emperors  re- 
specting Investiture  and  nomination  to  the  Holy  See.  These 
disputes  last  until  1122. 


Berenger  goes  to  Rome,  hoping  to  obtain  a  declaration 
of  the  pope  in  favour  of  his  views  of  the  eucharist.  The 
opposite  party  (under  Humbert)  too  strong  for  him.  At 
a  council,  Berenger  is  required  to  subscribe  a  declaration 
that,  after  consecration,  the  bread  and  wine  are  the  true 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  that  his  body  is  sensibly 
broken  by  the  hands  of  the  priest,  and  pressed  by  the 
teeth  of  the  communicant.  Berenger  subscribes.  But 
after  his  return  to  France  he  openly  retracted  his  confes- 
sion, asserted  his  former  doctrines  against  Lan franc,  and 
inveighed  violently  against  the  Church  of  Rome.  Lanfranc 
writes  against  Berenger  (De  Eucharistise  Sacramento 
Liber).     Berenger  replies  (De  Sacra  Ccena  Liber). 


Nicholas   II.    enforces    the   relaxed    discipline  of  the 
Canons  Regular. 
1059  Order  of  the  Brethren  of  St.  Antony. 

(Many  miraculous  cures,  said  to  be  wrought  by  the 
pretended  relics  of  St.  Antony  and  St.  Didier,  lately  im- 
ported into  Dauphine  from  Constantinople.) 


1060  Philip  I.  King  of  France. 


By  a  synod  at  Spalatro,  in  Dalmatia,  the  use  of  the 
Slavonian  language  in  divine  worship  is  prohibited. 
Methodius  (confounded  with  Ulphilas)  is  declared  to 
have  been  a  Gothic  heretic. 


222 


1062 
1063 
1064 


FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE  (Fourth 

In   Arragon,   and   soon  afterwards   in  Catalonia,    the 
Roman  liturgy  is  substituted  for  the  Mozarabic. 


Lanfranc,  Abbot  of  Caen. 


Alp  Arslan,  Seljukian  Sultan. 


Siegfried,  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  Giinther  of  Bamberg, 
and  other  German  and  French  bishops,  undertake  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  Holy  Land,  accompanied  by  above  seven 
thousand  devotees.     Only  about  five  thousand  return. 


1065  f  Humbert,  advocate  of  the  Western  Church  against 
the  Eastern. 

Idolatry  exterminated  in  Hungary.  All  Jutland  Christ- 
ianised. 

William  of  Normandy  invades  England  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  a  papal  grant. 

Alp  Arslan  zealously  propagates  Mohammedanism  in 
Georgia  and  Armenia. 

1066  *    William  the  Conqueror,  King  of  England. 

*  One  third  of  the  land  in  England  now  in  the  hands 
of  churchmen. 

*  After  the  Conquest,  the  erroneous  doctrines  and 
practices  of  the  Church  of  Rome  begin  to  take  deeper 
root  than  formerly  in  England.  But  the  way  had  already 
been  prepared  for  the  admission  of  such  errors. 

William  consents  to  the  payment  of  Peter's  Pence ;  not 
as  a  tribute,  but  as  a  benefaction;  and  refuses  to  do 
homage  to  the  pope  for  his  dominions. 

*  He  exercised  supreme  authority  in  matters  eccle- 
siastical as  well  as  civil  in  England.  But  many  English 
ecclesiastics  were  ejected  from  their  benefices  in  favour 
of  William's  Norman  followers,  by  the  interference  of 
papal  legates.  This  was  a  dangerous  introduction  of 
papal  authority  into  England.  William  also  separated 
the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  courts,  and  thus  assisted  the 


Period.)  to  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  vii.         223 


1067 
1068 

1069 


1070 

1071 
1072 


clergy  in  establishing  their  claims  to  a  separate  jurisdic- 
tion. 


EuDociA,  Empress  of  the  East. 
Romanus  III.  (Diogenes)  Emp.  East. 


Congregation  of  Hirschau  (Congregatio  Hirsaugiensis) 
founded,  in  imitation  of  that  of  Clugny. 

N.B.  The  monastery  of  Hirschau  was  founded  about 
a.d.  830. 


Lanfranc,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 


Alp  Arslan  takes  the  Emperor  Romanus  prisoner. 

Michael  VII.  Emp.  East. 

Sultan  Malek  Shah. 


Peter  Damian. 


During  this  period,  the  state  and  civil  governors  ac- 
quired considerable  influence  over  the  Church,  which 
was  exerted  especially  in  the  way  of  granting  investiture 
to  bishops.  "  The  popes  used  to  date  their  acts  from  the 
years  of  the  emperor's  reign,  and  to  stamp  their  coin  with 
his  name  ;  and  all  the  higher  clergy  were  virtually  bound 
and  subject  to  the  secular  power,  by  the  solemn  investi- 
ture of  the  ring  and  the  crosier.  This  investiture  gave 
to  the  emperor  and  other  sovereigns  the  right  of  nomi- 
nating and  confirming  bishops,  and  even  of  deposing  them, 
if  they  saw  cause.  It  gave  them,  moreover,  the  right  of 
conferring,  at  their  pleasure,  those  fiefs  and  royal  prero- 
gatives which  the  munificence  of  princes  had  vested  in 
the  Church."    (Koch.) 

Bishops  had  become  extremely  negligent  of  their 
spiritual  duties,  notwithstanding  provisions  and  penalties 
designed  to  enforce  the  discharge  of  them.  Their  chief 
care,  in  general,  was  to  furnish  their  friends  with  a  sub- 
sistence from  the  revenues  of  the  Church,  and  to  trade 


224  FROM    THE    DEATH    OF    CHARLEMAGNE         (Fourth 

with  ecclesiastical  benefices.  This  evil  continued,  and 
even  increased,  during  the  following  centuries. 

Archdeacons  also,  as  representatives  and  commissioners 
of  the  bishops,  were  guilty  of  many  flagrant  abuses  of 
their  station  and  influence  ;  an  evil  which  subsequently 
led  to  the  abridgment  of  their  authority,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  bishop's  officials  or  vicars. 

The  influence  of  Rome  had  been  greatly  increased  by 
means  of  the  vices  and  injustice  of  temporal  princes,  as 
well  as  by  dissensions  and  ambition  among  the  bishops. 
Sometimes  princes  appealed  to  Rome  against  the  preten- 
sions of  their  clergy ;  and  sometimes  the  clergy  appealed 
against  the  claims  and  exactions  of  princes.  Thus  both 
parties  contributed  to  establish  the  power  of  the  pope. 
Such  was  the  case,  e.  g.  with  regard  to  England. 

Monastic  Orders.  Hitherto  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict 
(see  817.)  was  the  only  one  allowed  by  the  Romish 
Church ;  and  the  rule  of  St.  Basil  prevailed  exclusively 
(as  it  still  does)  in  the  East. 

Disputes  between  Realists  (i,  e.  those  who  maintained 
that  universals  are  real  things),  and  Nominalists  (who 
contended  that  they  are  mere  names,  or  simple  abstrac- 
tions). 

The  revival  of  philosophy  in  the  Latin  Church,  and 
the  consequent  controversies  between  the  Nominalists 
and  Realists,  occasioned  a  remarkable  change  in  the 
method  of  propounding  religious  doctrines,  which  were 
henceforth  not  only  stated  in  a  more  logical  form  than 
hitherto,  but  also  mixed  up  with  metaphysical  prin- 
ciples. 


List    of    Popes,    Patriarchs,    and    Archbishops    of 
Canterbury,  from  the  Year  815  to  1070. 

815.  Theodorus.  821.  Antonius  I. 

816.  Stephen  V.  824.  Eugenius  II. 

817.  Pascal  I.  827.  Valentine. 


Period.) 


TO    THE    PONTIFICATE    OF    GREGORY  VII. 


225 


828. 

•Gregory  IV. 

928. 

Leo  VI. 

830. 

*  Theolgild. 

— 

Tryphon. 

— 

*  Ceolnoth. 

— . 

*  Wulfelm. 

832. 

John  VII. 

929. 

Stephen  IX.  (VIII.) 

842. 

Methodius  I. 

931. 

John  XI. 

844. 

Sergius  II, 

932. 

See  of  Constantinople  vacant. 

846. 

Ignatius. 

933. 

Theophylact. 

847. 

Leo  IV. 

936. 

Leo  VII. 

855. 

Benedict  III. 

939. 

Stephen  IX.  (or  VIII.). 

857. 

Photius. 

941. 

*  Odo  Severus. 

Ignatius  deposed. 

943. 

Martin  III.  (or  II.). 

858. 

Nicholas  I. 

946. 

Agapetus  II. 

Photius. 

954. 

*  Dunstan 

867. 

Adrian  II. 

956. 

John  XII. 

— 

Ignatius, 

— 

Polyeuchus. 

restored. 

963. 

Leo  VIII. 

871. 

*  Atheldred. 

964. 

Benedict  V. 

872. 

John  VIII. 

in  opposition  to  Leo. 

877. 

Photius, 

965. 

John  XIII. 

restored. 

970. 

Basil  I. 

882. 

Martin  II.  (or  I.). 

972. 

Benedict  VI. 

884. 

Adrian  III. 

973. 

Boniface  VII. 

885. 

Stephen  VI. 

974. 

Domnus  II. 

886. 

Stephen  I. 

— 

Antonius  III. 

891. 

FORMOSUS. 

975. 

Benedict  VII. 

— 

*  Phlegmund. 

See  of  Constantinople  vacant. 

893. 

Antonius  II. 

983. 

Nicholas  II. 

895. 

Nicholas  I. 

984. 

John  XIV. 

896. 

Boniface  VI. 

986. 

John  XV. 

— 

Stephen  VII.  (or  VI.). 

988. 

*  Ethelgar. 

897. 

ROMANUS. 

989. 

*  Siric. 

898. 

Theodorus  II. 

995. 

Sisinnius  II. 

— 

John  IX.  (X.) 

996. 

Gregory  V. 

900. 

Benedict  IV. 

— . 

*  Aluricius. 

903. 

Leo  V.                1 

r^                                \  rivals. 
Christopher.  J 

997. 

Schism  between  Gregory  V.  and 

John  XVI.  (or  XVII.) 

905. 

Sergius  III. 

999. 

Sylvester  II. 

Euthymius  I. 

— 

Sergius  II. 

Nicholas  deposed. 

1003 

.  John  XVII.  (or  XVIIL) 

911. 

Anastasius  III. 

1005 

.  *  Elphege. 

— 

Nicholas  I. 

1009 

.  Sergius  IV. 

restored. 

1012 

.  Benedict  VIII. 

913. 

•Lando. 

1013 

.  *  Living,  or  Leovingus. 

914. 

John  X. 

1019 

.  Eustathius. 

923. 

*  Atheln. 

1020 

'.  *  Agelnoth,  or  iErthelnot, 

925. 

Stephen  II. 

1024 

.  John  XVIII  (or  XIX). 

226 


FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 


{Fourth 


1025.  Alexis. 

1033.  Benedict  IX. 

1038.  *  Edsine,  or  Eadsius. 

1043.  Michael  I.  Cerularius. 

1044.  Sylvester  III. 

Elected  in  opposition  to  Bene- 
dict :  with  whom  he  after- 
wards shares  the  papacy. 

Benedict  makes  a  simoniacal 
contract  with  John  Gratian, 
who  assumes  the  title  of  Gre- 
gory VI.  Three  popes  at 
once. 

All  three  deposed  by  the  Council 

i   of  Sutry,  which  elects 


1046.  Clement  II. 
1048.  Damascus  II. 

—     Leo  IX 
1050.  *  Robert  Gemeticensis. 
1052.  *  Stigand. 

1054.  See  of  Rome  vacant. 

1055.  Victor  II. 

1057.  Stephen  IX. 
[1058.  Benedict  X.] 

1058.  Nicholas  II. 

1059.  Constantine  III. 
1061.  Alexander  II. 
1063.  John  VIII.  Xiphilin. 
1070.  *  Lanfranc 


Councils  from  the  Year  815  to  1072. 


815.  Constantinople  (for  removal 

of  images. — Decrees  of  Se- 
venth General  Council  an- 
nulled). 

816.  Aix-la-Chapelle  (reform  of 

monastic  abuses). 

—  Rome. 

817.  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

821.  Constantinople. 

822.  Thionville  (on  discipline). 

—  *  Cloveshoo. 

—  Attigny. 

823.  Rome. 

—  Compeigne. 

824.  *  Cloveshoo   (dispute  con- 

cerning the  Monastery  of 
Westbury). 

825.  Paris  ;  and  Aix-la-Chapelle 

(in  support  of  image-wor- 
ship). 

826.  Ingelheim. 

—  Rome  (on  discipline). 
829.  Mentz.  Paris.  Lyons. 

Worms.    Constantinople. 


832. 
833. 
834. 
835. 
836. 

837. 


841. 
842. 

842. 
844. 

845. 
846. 

847. 


848, 


St.   Denis. 

Compeigne. 

St.  Denis. 

Thionville. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (Church 
property). 

Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Chiersy  (against  the  liturgi- 
cal works  of  Amalarius). 

Tours. 

Constantinople  (against  the 
Iconoclasts). 

Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Thionville. 

Vern. 

Meaux  (on  discipline). 

Paris.     Sens. 

Constantinople. 

Mentz    (Church   property. 
—  Discipline). 

Mentz    (opinions  of  Gotts- 
chalk  condemned). 

Limoges. 

Bretagnc.     Rome. 


Period.) 


TO  THE  PONTIFICATE  OF  GREGORY  VII. 


227 


848.  Lyons. 

866.  Soissons. 

849.  Chiersy    (Gottschalk    con- 

867. Constantinople. 

demned). 

—     Troyes. 

—     Chartres. 

—     Constantinople  (Photius  de- 

—    Paris. 

posed). 

850.  Pavia  (on  discipline). 

868.  Worms  (on  discipline). 

851.  *Beningdon,  in  Mercia  (pri- 

—    Rome(Photiuscondemned). 

vileges  of  the  monastery  of 

869.  Metz. 

Croyland). 

—     Constantinople  ;  reckon- 

852. Cordova. 

ed  as  the  Eighth  General 

—    Mentz  (on  discipline). 

Council     by    the    Latins 

853.  Soissons.     Verberia. 

(against  Photius). 

—     Chiersy      (against     Gotts- 

870. Vienne. 

chalk). 

—     Attigny. 

—     Frankfort-on-the-Maine. 

—     Cologne. 

—     Paris, 

—     Spalatro. 

—     Rome  (on  discipline). 

871.  Douzi. 

855.  Valence. 

—     Compeigne. 

—     Pavia  (on  discipline,  &c). 

872.  Rome. 

—     Bonceuil. 

873.  Senlis. 

—     *  Winchester. 

—     Cologne. 

857.  Chiersy. 

874.  Douzi. 

—     Mentz. 

—     Ravenna. 

858.  Worms. 

—     Rheims  (on  discipline). 

—     Chiersy. 

875.  Rome. 

—     Constantinople         (against 

876.  Pavia. 

Photius). 

—     Rome. 

859.  Langres.  Metz.  Saronieres. 

—     Pontion. 

860.  Aix-la-Chapelle.     Coblentz. 

877.  Oviedo. 

Mentz.    Rome. 

—     Compeigne. 

—     Tousy. 

—     Rome. 

861.  Constantinople  (in  favour  of 

—     Ravenna. 

Photius). 

—     Compeigne. 

—     Rome  (against  Photius). 

878.  Rome. 

862.  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

—     Troyes. 

—     Rome. 

879.  Rome.  Jerusalem.  Antioch. 

—     Soissons. 

Alexandria     (in  favour  of 

863.  Rome  (against  Photius). 

Photius). 

—     Metz. 

879,    880       Constantinople  ; 

—     Verberia. 

reckoned    as   the    Eighth 

—     Rome  (against  the  Council 

General    Council   by    the 

of  Metz). 

Greeks  (in  favour  of  Pho- 

864. Rome  (Lateran). 

tius  ;  concerning  the  Ni- 

865.  Attigny. 

cene  Creed,  and  the  Six 

866.  Pavia. 

General  Councils). 

Q  2 


228 


FROM  THE  DEATH  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 


(Fourth 


881.  Fimes  (on  discipline). 

955.  *  Llandaff. 

886.  Chalon. 

958.  Ingelheim. 

887.  Cologne. 

963.  Constantinople. 

—     Tours. 

—     Rome. 

888.  Mentz.     Metz     (on     disci- 

964. Rome  :  —  two. 

pline). 

967.  Rome. 

892.  Vienne. 

—     Ravenna. 

893.  Rheims. 

968.  Rome. 

895.  Tribur  (near  Mentz). 

—     Ravenna. 

896  (or  897.)  Rome  (against  the 

969.  *  England  (under  Dunstan  ; 

late  Pope  Formosus). 

on  discipline). 

898.  Rome  (against  the  foregoing 

—     Rome. 

council). 

971.  Rome. 

—     Ravenna. 

975.  *  Winchester  (under  Dun- 

900. Rheims. 

stan). 

—     Lateran. 

—     Rome. 

906.  Constantinople. 

—     Rheims. 

—     Barcelona  (on  discipline). 

978.  *  Calne. 

909.  Trosley. 

979.  Ingelheim  (on  discipline). 

911.  Constantinople. 

988.  Llandaff. 

920.  Constantinople. 

990.  Narbonne  (Church  proper- 

921.  Trosley. 

ty). 

922.  Coblentz  (on  discipline). 

991.  Rheims. 

923.  Rheims. 

992.  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

927.  Treves  (reformation  of  the 

993.  Lateran. 

clergy). 

—     Rheims  (Church  property). 

—     Trosley. 

995.  Mouson. 

928.  *  Gratley. 

996.  Rome.    St.  Denis  (Church 

931.  Altheim  (on  discipline). 

property). 

—     Constantinople. 

997.  Pavia. 

932.  Ratisbon. 

998.  Rome. 

—     Erford  (on  discipline). 

—     Ravenna. 

—     Dingelfind   (reformation   of 

1000.  Poitiers  (on  discipline). 

the  clergy). 

1001.  Rome. 

935.  Fimes  (Church  property). 

1007.  Frankfort-on-the~ Maine. 

941.  Soissons. 

1009.  *  Exham,  in  England  (ec- 

943. *  Llandaff. 

clesiastical  discipline). 

946.  Astorga  (on  discipline). 

—     Milan. 

947-  Narbonne  (on  discipline). 

1018.  Nimeguen. 

—     Verdun. 

1020 — 1024.  Several  in  France. 

948.  Mouson. 

1022.  Pavia  (reformation  of  the 

—    Ingelheim. 

clergy). 

—     *  London. 

1025.  Arras. 

949.  Rome. 

1027.  Constantinople  (on  disci- 

952, Augsburg(ondiscipline,&c.) 

pline). 

Perio 

d.)               TO    THE    PONTIFICATE    OI 

1    GREGORY  VII.                  22i) 

1027. 

Rome. 

1059. 

Aries. 

1029. 

Limoges. 

1060. 

Vienne.   Tours. 

1031. 

Bourges.  Limoges  (on  dis- 

— 

Toulouse. 

cipline). 

1061. 

Rome. 

1034. 

Several  in  France. 

— 

Basle. 

1036. 

Tribur,    near    Mentz    (on 

1062. 

Angers  (against  Berenger). 

discipline). 

1063. 

Rome  (against  simony). 

1040. 

Venice  (on  discipline). 

— 

Rouen  (in  support  of  the 

1041, 

1042.  Several   in    France. 

doctrine  of  Transubstan- 

(Treuga  Dei). 

tiation). 

1046. 

Sutry. 

1065. 

*  London  (immunities   of 

1047. 

Rome. 

the  Abbey  of  Westmin- 

1049. 

Rome.      Pavia.     Rheims. 

ster). 

Mentz. 

1066- 

•1067.  Constantinople  (con- 

1050. 

Rome.     Tours.     Vercelli. 

cerning  marriage). 

Brienne.  Paris.  Siponto. 

1067. 

Mantua. 

1051. 

Mentz     (against  marriage 

1068. 

Gironne  (Treuga  Dei). 

of  priests). 

— 

Barcelona. 

1053. 

Mantua. 

— 

Toulouse  (against  simony). 

— 

Rome. 

1069. 

Mentz. 

1054. 

Constantinople. 

— 

Spalatro   (use  of  Slavonic 

— 

Narbonne. 

language  in  divine  ser- 

1055. 

Mentz.  Florence.  Angers. 

vice  forbidden). 

Lyons.    Rouen. 

1070. 

*  Winchester  and  Windsor 

1056. 

Compostello      (on      disci- 

(in presence  of  a  papal 

pline). 

legate). 

— 

*  Llandaff. 

1071. 

Mentz. 

— 

Toulouse     (Church     pro- 

1072. 

Chalon. 

perty). 

— 

*  England. 

1059. 

Sutry. 

— 

Rouen. 

— 

Rome. 

— 

Rome. 

END  OF  THE  FOURTH  PERIOD. 


Q  3 


PERIOD  V. 

FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.    TO    THE 
BEGINNING    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

1073—1517. 


1073;  (Henry  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany, 

Michael  VII.  Emp.  East, 
Philip  I.  King  of  France, 
#  William  the  Conqueror,  King  of  England). 


Hildebrand,  Pope,  under  the  name  of 
Gregory  VII. 
pursues  his  plan  of  restoring  religion  by  establishing  a 
Papal  Theocracy.  He  endeavours  to  reform  the  clergy, 
and  especially  to  detach  them  from  secular  interests  and 
pursuits ;  and  seeks  to  inspire  princes  and  other  laymen 
with  respect  for  the  Church,  as  an  independent  and 
superior  body.  The  theory  of  the  Pseudo-Isidorian  De- 
cretals, which  represents  the  bishop  of  Rome  as  uni- 
versal bishop  of  the  Church,  begins  to  be  realised. 

Great  indignation  prevails  in  Europe  on  account  of 
the  oppression  of  pilgrims  in  the  Holy  Land.  Gregory 
renews  the  idea  of  a  Crusade  (see  a.d.  999),  and  projects 
the  arming  of  all  Christendom  for  an  attack  upon  the 
common  enemy. 

Gregory  makes  successful  efforts  for  the  recovery  of 
Church  patronage  from  princes  and  nobles,  in  whose 
hands  it  had  rested  for  several  centuries. 


(Fifth  Period.)     from  the  accession  of  Gregory  vii.       231 

The  Era  of  Scholastic  Theology  begins. 
The  history  of  the  Scholastic  Theology  divides  itself  into 
three  periods, 

1.  The  latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century  and  the  whole  of 
the  twelfth  teas  the  period  of  its  origin  and  development. 

2.  During  the  thirteenth  century  it  flourished  at  its  height. 

3.  Throughout  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  it 
ivas  on  the  decline. 

The  system  of  Congregations  of  monks  or  monastic 
orders,  already  established,  contributes  during  this  period 
to  the  restoration  of  discipline,  and  general  improve- 
ment, in  monasteries. 

1074  By  the  Council  of  Rome,  the  strict  enforcement  of 
celibacy  upon  the  clergy  was  renewed,  and  Simony  was 
forbidden  under  the  sanction  of  penalties.  Laymen  for- 
bidden to  confess  to  married  priests,  or  to  attend  their  per- 
formance of  mass,  under  penalty  of  excommunication. 

1075  The  Council  of  Rome  forbids  all  lay  investiture,  or 
appointment  to  spiritual  offices,  as  simoniacal. 

The  pope  claims  absolute  and  unlimited  dominion  over  all 
the  states  of  Christendom,  as  successor  of  St.  Peter  and 
vicar  of  Christ  upon  earth. 

Inge,  King  of  Sweden,  prohibits  idolatry  within  his 
dominions.  Christianity  now  established  in  Sweden. 
The  Pagans  rebel. 

Malek  Shah,  Seljukian  Sultan,  subdues  Egypt  and 
Palestine. 

1076  Jerusalem  captured  by  Seljukian  Turks. 

The  emperor  (Henry  IV.)  refuses  to  submit  to  the 
papal  claims,  and  quarrels  with  the  pope.  Henry  causes 
the  Council  of  Worms  to  depose  the  pope;  and  Gregory, 
in  a  Council  of  Rome,  excommunicates  the  emperor,  and 
absolves  his  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegiance.  He  ex- 
communicates also  all  who  took  part  in  the  Council  of 
Worms. 

1077  Henry  performs  penance,  and  submits  to  the  demands 
of  the  pope.  He  afterwards  unites  with  the  Lombards 
against  the  pope. 

Q  4 


232  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         [Fifth 

From  this  time  the  pontiffs  regard  the  empire  as  a  fief  of 
the  Church. 

Gregory  had  now  begun  "  to  put  in  execution  the  pro- 
ject which  he  had  so  long  been  concerting  and  preparing, 
viz.  the  erecting  of  a  spiritual  despotism,  extending  to 
priests  as  well  as  to  kings ;  making  the  supreme  pontiff 
the  arbiter  in  all  affairs,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  — - 
the  bestower  of  favours,  and  the  dispenser  of  crowns. 
The  basis  of  this  dominion  was,  that  the  vicar  of  Jesus 
Christ  ought  to  be  superior  to  all  human  power.  The 
better  to  attain  his  object,  he  began  by  withdrawing  him- 
self and  his  clergy  from  the  authority  of  secular  princes. 

"  The  bishops,  vainly  flattering  themselves  with  the 
prospect  of  an  imaginary  liberty,  forgot  the  valuable  gifts 
with  which  the  emperor  had  loaded  them,  and  enlisted 
under  the  banners  of  the  pope.  They  turned  against  the 
secular  princes  those  arms  which  the  latter  had  impru- 
dently trusted  in  their  hands."     (Koch.) 

By  the  Council  of  Rome  (1079),  bishops  were  obliged 
to  take  an  oath  of  fealty  and  homage  to  the  pope,  bind- 
ing themselves  to  aid  and  defend  "  the  royal  rights  of 
St.  Peter." 


1078 


Nicephorus  III.  Em  p.  East. 
Rodolph  of  Bavaria  supported  by  the  pope  as  anti-em- 
peror, against  Henry  :  —  defeated. 

Continued  struggles  between  Christians  and  Pagans  in 
Sweden. 

Theophylact,  fl. 
He  may  be  regarded  as  the  best  expositor  of  Scripture 
whom  this  age  produced.     But  hermeneutic  theology  was 
still  at  a  very  low  ebb. 

t  John  Xiphilin. 


Gregory  cites  Berenger  to  appear  at  Rome,  with  a  view 
to  effect  an  amicable  adjustment  of  the  Eucharistic  Contro- 
versy. He  requires  Berenger  to  subscribe  a  confession  of 
faith  drawn  up  in  moderate  terms.     Berenger's  opponents 


Period.)      to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.         233 

dissatisfied  with  this,  and  disposed  to  call  in  question  the 
orthodoxy  of  Gregory  himself.  Gregory,  jealous  of  his 
reputation  for  orthodoxy,  which  was  especially  valuable 
as  a  means  of  carrying  out  his  plan  of  consolidating  a 
papal  theocracy,  requires  Berenger,  in  a  council  assem- 
bled the  next  year,  to  subscribe  a  confession,  declaring 
that  the  bread  and  wine  are  changed  "  substantialiter  " 
into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  Berenger  complies  — 
renounces  his  alleged  errors,  —  and  returns  to  France. 
1080  Gregory  renews  his  excommunication  of  Henry,  and 
recognises  Rodolph  as  emperor.  Henry  causes  Gregory 
to  be  deposed  again  by  the  Councils  of  Mentz  and 
Brixen ;  and  sets  up  another  pope,  under  the  title  of 
Clement  III. 


1081 


1084 


1080-1083.     Henry  lays  siege  to  Rome  during  three 
years. 

Alexius  Comnenus,  Emp.  East. 


Many  abuses  prevailed  in  connexion  with  the  so-called 
sacrament  of  Penance,  which  had  continually  acquired 
more  and  more  of  an  arbitrary  and  merely  external  cha- 
racter. The  Popes  Gregory  and  Urban  denounced  these 
abuses,  but  in  vain. 

#  Osmond,  Bishop  of  Sarum,  frames  the  Service-book 
"  In  Usum  Sarum.'' 

Use  of  the  Latin  Liturgy  imposed  upon  the  whole  Church 
by  Gregory. 

In  the  Western  churches  many  of  the  clergy  were  married, 
notwithstanding  all  efforts  to  the  contrary.  The  laws  of 
celibacy  found  great  and  lasting  opposition  in  some 
parts  :  e.g.  at  Milan  in  France,  and  in  Britain. 

Carthusian  order  of  monks  founded  by  Bruno,  at 
Chartreuse  (Cartusia),  near  Grenoble.  Strictly  ascetic  ; 
—  monks  employed,  solitary  and  silent,  in  transcribing 
religious  books. 

Several   princes  of  Italy  and   Germany  abandon   the 


234  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         [Fifth 

emperor,  and  do  homage  to  the  pope.     William,  King  of 
England,  refuses  such  submission. 

*  In  England,  churchmen  are  forbidden  to  leave  the 
kingdom,  or  to  acknowledge  any  one  as  pope  without 
permission  of  the  king. 

"  Gregory  pretended  to  unite  in  himself  the  plenary 
exercise  both  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  episcopal  power, 
leaving  nothing  to  the  archbishops  and  bishops  but  the 
title  of  his  lieutenants  or  vicars.  He  completely  under- 
mined the  jurisdiction  of  the  metropolitans  and  bishops, 
by  authorising,  in  all  cases,  an  appeal  to  the  court  of 
Rome,  reserving  to  himself  exclusively  the  cognisance  of 
all  causes  called  major;  including  more  especially  the 
privilege  of  judging  and  deposing  bishops.  This  latter 
privilege  had  always  been  vested  in  provincial  councils, 
who  exercised  it  under  the  authority,  and  with  the  con- 
sent of,  the  secular  powers.  Gregory  abolished  this  usage, 
and  claimed  for  himself  the  power  of  judging  the  bishops, 
either  in  person  or  by  his  legates,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
synodal  assemblies.  He  made  himself  master  of  these 
assemblies,  and  even  arrogated  the  exclusive  right  of  con- 
vocating  general  councils."  (Koch.) 
1 084  Henry  gains  possession  of  Rome  by  treachery.  Duke 
Robert  Guiscard  recovers  Rome  in  favour  of  Gregory. 


1085  Gregory  VII.  dies  at  Salerno. 

The  pope  is  now  the  absolute  monarch  of  the  Church. 
The  fiction  by  which  he  had  been  represented  as  the 
Vicar  or  Successor  of  St.  Peter  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  is 
turned  into  the  still  grosser  fiction  of  his  being  the 
Vicar  of  God,  or  of  Christ,  for  the  whole  Church  upon 
earth. 

Authority  of  the  pope  maintained  by  his  absolute 
control  of  councils,  —  the  immediate  subjection  of  bishops 
to  the  See  of  Rome,  —  appointment  to  benefices  by  papal 
mandate,  under  penalty  of  excommunication,  —  appeals  to 
Rome  from  all  courts,  and  in  all  causes,  —  general  right 
to  grant  absolution  and  dispensation,  and  exclusive  power 
of  canonization,  claimed  by  the  pope,  and   conceded  to 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.      235 

him,  —  taxation  of  churches,  —  the  mission  of  papal  legates 
with  unlimited  authority  to  all  parts  of  Christendom. 

Disputes  between  the  emperor  and  the  pope  continue  long 
after  Gregory's  death. 

Christians  oppressed  by  the  Seljukian  Turks  in  Asia 
Minor. 


1086 


1087 


1088 
1089 


Penance.  Indulgences  had  hitherto  been  granted  only 
with  reference  to  certain  Church  penalties,  but  in  this 
year  Urban  proclaimed  the  remission  of  all  penalties 
(indulgentia  plenaria),  on  condition  of  joining  an  expedi- 
tion against  the  infidels  in  Africa. 


Libraries  and  Schools  multiplied. 

The  usual  course  of  study  comprised  the  Trivium, 
(grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectics,)  and  the  Quadrivium 
(arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astronomy). 

During  the  age  of  scholastic  theology,  we  meet  with 
systematic  divisions  and  classifications  of  the  Divine  attri- 
butes for  the  first  time. 


*  William  II.  (Rufus)  King  of  England. 

Rise  of  the  Italian  Republics. 
Crusade  against  the  Arabians  in  Africa. 


(1089 — 1093.)  *  William  Rufus  keeps  the  See  of  Can- 
terbury vacant  during  the  space  of  four  years,  appro- 
priating its  revenues.  He  exercised  his  cupidity  in  the 
same  manner  with  regard  to  other  English  bishoprics,  and 
several  abbeys. 

|  Berenger. 

*  t  Lanfranc.  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
and  on  the  Psalms.  Treatise  on  Confession.  Disserta- 
tion on  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist, 
against  Berenger.     Orations.     Epistles. 

Lanfranc  may  be  considered  as  having  introduced  the 
scholastic  theology. 


236  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.  (Fifth 


1090 
1092 


1093 
1094 


1095 


1096 


to  1097.  The  Emperor  Henry  in  Italy. 
Death  of  the  Seljukian  Sultan  Malek  Shah.     Division 
of  his  territories.    Foundation  of  the  Kingdom  of  Roum, 
in  Asia  Minor.     Soliman  II.  Sultan. 

Conrad,  son  of  the  Emperor  Henry,  supported  by  the 
pope,  rebels  against  his  father,  but  fails. 


Peter  (the  Hermit)  of  Amiens  receives  a  commission  from 
the  pope  to  preach  a  Crusade. 

At  the  Council  of  Autun,  a  papal  legate  excom- 
municates the  Emperor  Philip  I.  King  of  France,  and 
Clement  III. 

Philip  I.  King  of  France,  imprisons  Ivo,  Bishop  of 
Chartres,  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  his  unjust  divorce 
of  his  queen  Bertha,  and  marriage  with  Bertrade. 

Order  of  monks  of  St.  Antony  founded  by  Gaston,  a 
French  nobleman,  in  gratitude  for  the  recovery  of  his 
son.     Duty  of  the  monks  to  tend  the  sick. 

At  the  Councils  of  Placentia  and  Clermont,  Urban 
zealously  supports  the  cause  of  the  Crusades.  Promises 
of  absolution,  indulgence,  and.  eternal  life  to  all  who  should 
join  the  expedition.  The  enterprise  undertaken  with 
furious  ardour. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  and  Walter  the  Pennyless,  lead 
forward  a  mixed  multitude,  300,000  of  whom  perish 
before  the  Crusaders  start, 

The  First  Crusade, 
under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Hugh  of  Vermandois, 
Robert  of  Normandy,  Robert  of  Flanders,  Stephen  of 
Chartres,  Raymond  of  Toulouse,  Bohemond,  and  Tan- 
cred.  Number  of  Crusaders  600,000,  besides  priests, 
monks,  &c. 

The  part  taken  by  Urban  in  promoting  the  Crusades 
tends  greatly  to  increase  his  influence  and  power  in  the 
Church.  As  the  leader  and  abettor  of  a  highly  popular 
measure, —  one  which  exactly  fell  in  with  the  taste  and  dis- 
position of  the  times, — he  soon  becomes  more  than  a  match 
for  his  rival  Clement. 


Period.)  to  the  beginntng  of  the  reformation.     237 


1097 


1098 


1099 


A  second  sentence  of  excommunication  against  the 
King  of  France,  on  account  of  his  divorce,  &c. 

*  Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  quarrels  with 
Henry,  King  of  England,  respecting  Investitures. 

William  II.  agreed  to  acknowledge  Urban  as  pope,  on 
condition  of  his  deposing  Anselm.  A  papal  legate  re- 
ceived William's  acknowledgment,  and  then  confirmed 
Anselm  in  his  see.  But  Anselm  was  obliged  to  flee  the 
kingdom. 

The  Council  of  Bari,  under  Urban,  again  condemns 
the  doctrine  of  the  Greek  Church  concerning  the  pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Anselm,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  undertakes  the  defence  of  the  Latin  doc- 
trine. 


Doctrine  concerning  the  Existence  of  God, 
Anselm  is  generally  regarded  as  the  first  writer  who 
advanced  an  ontological  proof  of  the  existence  of  God ; 
and,  in  fact,  he  was  the  first  who  fully  developed  this  idea, 
which  had  been  started  by  Augustin.  Duns  Scotus,  Wil- 
liam Occam,  and  other  scholastic  writers,  however,  re- 
jected every  a  priori  argument;  and  Peter  d'Ailly  main- 
tained that  reason,  though  it  may  show  the  existence  of 
God  to  be  probable,  can  never  demonstrate  it.  Hence 
Des  Cartes  is  ranked  as  the  patron  of  the  ontological 
argument  on  this  subject. 


The  Cistercian  order  of  monks  founded  at  Citeaux 
(Cistercium)  near  Dijon,  in  the  diocese  of  Chalons,  by 
Robert:  confirmed  by  the  pope  in  1100.  Most  important 
of  the  new  orders  founded  about  this  time ;  soon  rivals 
that  of  Clugny. 

Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Crusaders,  July  15.  Order  of 
the  Hospitalers  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  first  founded,  for 
the  cure  of  the  sick. 

Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  founded  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 


238  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         [Fifth 


End  of  n0  general  council  had  been  held  during  this  century. 
Ele-  The  use  of  Rosaries  has  now  become  general  in  the 
™H    Latin  Church. 

Cen- 
tury. Religious  flagellation  has  been  introduced: 

And  also  the  celebration  of  Saturday,  in  honour  of  the 

Virgin  Mary. 

1100  *  Henry  I.  King  of  England. 

Councils  against  Simony. 

1 101  Celibacy  of  the  clergy  finally  established  in  Saxony, 
"f*  Bruno,  founder  of  the  Carthusian  order. 


1 102  Boleslas  II.  King  of  Poland. 

1103  Division  of  the  Empire  of  the  Seljukides. 

The  Bogomili,  a  Mystic  sect,  holding  some  Gnostic 
doctrines,  in  the  Greek  Church.  (It  is  probable  that  many 
who  did  not  hold  such  doctrines,  but  merely  rejected  the 
superstitions  of  the  dominant  church,  and  were  sincere 
and  serious  Christians,  were  included  under  this  odious 
name.) 

Peter  of  Bruys  denounces  some  prevalent  errors  and 
superstitions,  such  as  the  mass,  mere  ceremonial  worship, 
&c.  But  he  fell  into  extremes,  denouncing  all  places  of 
worship  as  needless,  opposing  the  perpetual  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  supper,  and  rejecting  infant  baptism. 

1105  ^he  emPeror's  second  son  (Henry)  rebels  against  his 
father.  Supported  by  the  pope.  Henry  IV.  compelled 
to  abdicate. 

1106  Henry  V.  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  of 

Italy. 

He  renews  the  contest  with  the  pope  concerning 
Investitures. 

#■  Quarrel  between  the  archbishop  and  pope,  and  the 
King  of  England  (Henry  II.),  respecting  Investitures 
continues.  Henry  at  length  submitted  to  a  compromise  : 
he  gave  up  the  right  of  Investiture,  but  churchmen 
agreed  to  do  homage  for  their  temporalities  (1107). 

This  century    is    distinguished  by  continually  recurring 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     239 

struggles  between  the  popes  on  the  one  side,  and  other  prelates, 
or  temporal  princes,  on  the  other. 


*  In  England,  Anselm  takes  great  pains  to  enforce  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy  :  —  he  meets  with  much  opposition. 
1 106        Robert  of  Arbrisselles  founds  the  order  of  Fontevraud. 

The  custom  of  elevating  the  Host  at  the  celebration  of  the 
eucharist  had  now  become  prevalent  in  the  West.  It  was 
of  earlier  date  in  the  Oriental  churches. 

Communion  in  one  kind.  —  A  custom  had  now  been  in- 
troduced of  administering  to  communicants  in  the  Lord's 
supper  the  bread  dipped  in  wine,  or  sometimes  bread 
alone,  instead  of  bread  and  wine.  This  innovation  was 
opposed  at  first  by  Pope  Paschal  II.  and  Anselm  of  Can- 
terbury, and  afterwards  by  Peter  Lombard  and  Albertus 
Magnus.  But  these  Schoolmen  maintained  the  doctrine  of 
a  concomitantia  corporis  et  sanguinis  Christi,  i.  e*  that 
both  the  body  and  blood  are  administered  under  each 
species ;  with  which  it  was  easy  for  others  to  defend  the 
withdrawal  of  the  cup  from  the  laity. 


1 107  At  the  Council  of  Troyes,  a  fruitless  attempt  was  made 
to  settle  the  question  respecting  Investitures. 

1 1 08  Louis  VI.  King  of  France. 
Small  Christian  states  in  Palestine  and  Syria,  dependent 

on  Jerusalem. 

1110  The  emperor  marches  into  Italy  against  the  pope. 
The  Italian  Republics  recognise    the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many as  their  head,  but  claim  sovereign  power  for  them- 
selves. 

1111  The  pope  made  prisoner.     He  is  compelled  to  concede 
the  right  of  Investiture  to  the  emperor. 

A  Lateran  Council  annuls  the  forced  concessions  of  the 
pope  relating  to  Investitures,  and  the  contest  is  renewed. 
The  council  excommunicates  Henry. 


1113  Alexius,  Emp.  East. 


240 
1113 

1115 


1116 


1118 


FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         (Fifth 

Bernard  retires,  with  thirty  companions,   to   the  new 
monastery  of  Citeaux. 


j*  Ivo,  Bishop  of  Chartres. 
He  had  maintained  that  it  was  not  unlawful  for  emperors 
to  invest  bishops,  &c.  with  temporal  power  and  dignity  ; 
and  that  the  Church  needs  not  require  more  than  that, 
they  should  lay  no  claim  to  a  right  to  invest  with  spiritual 
authority.  This  distinction  eventually  led  to  the  settle- 
ment of  the  contest  respecting  Investitures. 


Bernard,  now  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  improves  the  dis- 
cipline and  raises  the  reputation  of  his  order.  The 
monastery  of  Clairvaux  became  afterwards  the  head  of 
160  other  Cistercian  (or  Bernardine)  monasteries  in 
France,  Germany,  England,  Ireland,  Denmark,  Norway, 
and  Sweden. 


(1115 — 1124.)  Tanchelin,  or  Tanquelin,  an  eccentric 
fanatic  in  Flanders. 

Henry  of  Lausanne  preaches  at  Mans ;  —  inveighs 
against  the  pomp  and  wealth  of  the  clergy  ;  —  afterwards 
preaches  in  various  parts  of  Languedoc  and  Provence. 


The  emperor  again  marches  into  Italy  to  maintain  his 
cause  against  the  pope. 

John  Comnenus,  Emp.  East. 

Henry  supports  Gregory  VIII.  as  pope,  in  opposition  to 
Gelasius  II.  Gelasius  excommunicates  the  emperor  and 
his  anti-pope. 

The  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  becomes  military, 
under  Raymond  du  Puy.  (Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem.) 

Norbert  labours  to  promote  a  reformation  of  the  clergy 
in  Germany,  France,  and  the  Netherlands. 


Basil,  leader  of  the  Bogomili,  put  to  death. 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.      241 

1119        Gelasius  II.  compelled  to  quit  Rome:  dies  in  exile. 

Calixtus  II.,  at  the  Council  of  Rheims,  prohibits  all  lay 
investiture  of  bishops  and  abbots;  excommunicates  the 
emperor,  the  anti-pope,  and  their  adherents;  and  ab- 
solves all  the  emperor's  subjects  from  their  oath  of  alle- 
giance. 

Godfrey  of  Vendome  (abbot  and  cardinal)  recom- 
mends the  separation  of  spiritual  authority  and  temporal 
dignity  in  Investitures.  Hugo  of  Fleury  suggests  that 
princes  may  be  permitted  to  invest  with  the  sceptre,  but 
not  with  the  cross  and  ring. 


1120 


1121 


1122 


Order  of  Knights  Templar  instituted. 
At  this  time  a  church  at  Lubeck  is  the  only  one  of  the 
Slavi,  north  of  the  Elbe. 


Arnulph,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  recommends  that  com- 
municants in  the  eucharist  should  partake  of  bread  dipped 
in  wine.  The  late  popes  (Urban  and  Pascal)  had  insisted 
upon  the  administration  of  both  elements,  and  especially 
the  bread. 

The  States  of  Germany  insist  upon  the  emperor's  making 
peace  with  the  pope. 

Roleslas  III.  conquers  Wratislas,  Duke  of  Pomerania. 
He  endeavours  to  propagate  the  Gospel  among  the  Pome- 
ranians, at  first  with  little  success. 


Attempt  at  promoting  a  reformation  of  the  clergy  by 
uniting  the  monastic  life  with  the  discharge  of  spiritual 
functions.  In  1121  Norbert,  with  some  companions,  re- 
tires to  Premontre  (Praemonstratum),  in  the"  diocese  of 
Laon.  —  Canonici  Regulares. 

Peter  Maurice  (Venerabilis),  Abbot  of  Clugny,  from 
1122  until  1156,  restores  the  discipline  and  credit  of  his 
order.  

Dispute  respecting  Investitures  terminated  by  the 
Concordat  of  Worms. 


242  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         (Fifth 

The  emperor  empowered  to  invest  with  the  sceptre, 
but  not  with  the  cross  and  ring.  Elections  to  be  free,  in 
presence  of  the  emperor  or  his  commissioner.  Emperor 
to  possess  a  kind  of  casting  vote  in  disputed  elections. 
"  The  ties  of  vassalage  which  connected  the  bishops  with 
the  emperors  were  still  preserved  by  this  transaction,  con- 
trary to  the  intentions  of  Gregory  VII. ;  but  the  emperors, 
being  obliged  to  approve  of  the  persons  whom  the  Church 
should  hereafter  present,  lost  their  chief  influence  in  the 
elections,  and  were  no  longer  entitled,  as  formerly,  to 
grant  or  refuse  investiture."   (Koch.) 

1123  The  Council  of  Lateran  confirms  the  Concordat  of 
Worms. 

1124  Peter  of  Bruys  put  to  death.  A  sect  of  his  followers, 
Petrobrusians,  survives.  Henry  of  Lausanne  becomes 
their  leader ;  whence  they  acquire  the  title  Henricians. 


1125 


1126 


Otho,  Bishop  of  Bamberg,  labours  successfully  for  the 
conversion  of  the  Pomeranians.  Wratislas  and  many  of 
his  subjects  baptized. 

Christianity  established  in  Pomerania.  First  Pomera- 
nian bishopric  at  Wollin.     Otho  returns  to  Bamberg. 

Lothaire  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Struggles  of  the  Scholastic  Tlieology  with  the  more-practical^ 
and  the  traditional  or  ecclesiastical,  systems. 

Controversy  between  Abelard  and  Bernard. 


1128 


The  pope  formally  confirms  the  rule  of  Norbert,  and 
thus  establishes  the  order  of  PrcBmonstratensian  Canons. 
Norbert,  made  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  labours  zeal- 
ously for  the  propagation  of  his  order  until  his  death  in 
1134. 

Otho  undertakes  a  second  mission  to  Pomerania.  His 
zeal  and  intrepidity  contribute  greatly  to  the  final  sub- 
version of  Heathenism  in  that  country. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.      248 

Rules  for  the  order  of  Knights  Templar  by  the  Council 
of  Troyes. 

1129  Teaching  of  the  Church,  By  the  Council  of  Toulouse, 
the  laity  are  forbidden  to  read  either  the  Old  or  the  New 
Testament,  except  the  Psalter ;  and  that  not  in  the  ver- 
nacular tongue. 

1130  Dispute  and  division  at  the  election  of  a  new  pope. 
One  party  elects  Innocent  II. ;  the  other  Anacletus  II. 
Innocent  obliged  to  flee  from  Italy  to  France. 


Roger  II.  created  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily  by  the 
Pope. 

(The  Novels,  or  New  Collection  of  Imperial  Institutions, 
found  this  year  at  Amalfi  in  Italy.) 


Extreme  Unction  in  repute 


j"  Honorius  of  Autun. 


1131  Innocent  recognised  as  pope  in  Germany  and  France. 

1132  Innocent  returns  to  Italy. 

1133  Innocent  at  Rome,  crowns  Lothaire  II.  The  party  of 
Anacletus  afterwards  gain  possession  of  the  city,  and 
Innocent  is  obliged  to  quit. 


About  this  time,  the  Gospel  appears  to  have  been  in- 
troduced among  some  of  the  Tartar  tribes  by  the  influence 
of  one  of  their  chiefs  (Presbyter  Johannes).  His  successors 
continued  to  unite  the  kingly  and  sacerdotal  dignity,  until 
their  territory  was  overrun  by  the  Moguls  (1202). 

Christianity  now  makes  some  progress  among  the  tribes 
on  the  banks  of  the  Elbe  and  Oder.  Bishoprics  of  Havels- 
burg  and  Brandenburg  created  about  this  time.  While 
the  dukes  of  Saxony  sought  to  propagate  the  Gospel  in 
these  parts  by  force  of  arms,  some  bishops  laboured  to  the 
same  purpose  with  the  more  legitimate  means  of  persua- 
sion and  instruction. 

r  2 


•244  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         (Fifth 

Christianity  finally  established  in  Sweden. 
Struggles  between  the  Danish  clergy  and  their  king. 


1134  Henry  of  Lausanne  condemned  to  perpetual  imprison- 
ment by  the  Council  of  Pisa.  He  escapes,  and  con- 
tinues to  preach  in  the  South  of  France. 

Arnold  of  Brescia  begins  to  inveigh  against  the  papal 
system.  He  maintained  that  the  clergy  ought  not  to 
possess  temporalities ;  that  the  revenues  of  popes,  bishops, 
and  monasteries  ought  to  be  resigned  in  favour  of  the 
civil  rulers  of  each  state ;  and  that  ministers  of  the  Gospel 
ought  to  possess  no  more  than  a  spiritual  authority,  with 
a  subsistence  from  tithes  and  voluntary  contributions. 


1135  *   Stephen,   King  of  England. 

1137  Louis  VII.  King  of  France. 


After  the  death  of  Anacletus,  his  party  elect  Victor  IV. 
as  pope,  but  soon  submit  to  Innocent. 


1138        Conrad  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

First  Emperor  of  the  House  of  Suabia  or  Hohenstaufen. 


1139  A  general  council  (Lateran  II.)  recognises  Innocent  II. 
as  pope.  Arnold  of  Brescia  condemned :  obliged  to 
retire  into  Switzerland. 

#  The  bishop  of  Winchester  summons  the  king 
(Stephen)  before  him  to  answer  for  his  conduct  against 
certain  bishops,  —  claims  on  behalf  of  the  Church  the 
rio-ht  of  appointing  sovereigns,  —  and  declares  in  favour 
of  Matilda  and  her  son. 

Alphonso  I.  King  of  Portugal,  receives  confirmation  of 
his  title  from  the  Pope,  for  tribute. 


t  Otho,  Apostle  of  Pomerania, 


1140        The   Festival  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  introduced. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     245 

1140  The  Council  of  Constantinople  condemns  to  the  flames 
the  writings  of  Constantine  Chrysomalus,  as  propagating 
the  doctrines  of  the  Bogomili. 


*    Canon  Law  introduced  into  England. 


Innocent  imposes  the  obligation  of  a  vow  upon  the 
Canons  Regular. 

The  doctrine  of  Seven  Sacraments  is  established  by  the 
Schoolmen,  about  this  time. 

The  adoration  of  the  Host,  and  the  multiplication  of 
"  altars "  in  churches  may  be  traced  to  this  century  :  a 
natural  consequence  of  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation. 

Bernard  and  others  insist  upon  confession  of  sins  to  a 
priest;  Peter  Lombard  and  Gratian  speak  of  it  as  not  ab- 
solutely necessary. 

t  Hugh  of  St.  Victor. 
1142  Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria. 


1143 


t  Abelard. 


Manuel  I.  (Comnjenus)  Emp.  East. 

(The  Greek  Empire  regained  much  of  its  importance 
under  the  Comneni.) 

Fiefs  of  the  Western  Empire  become  hereditary.  This 
is  one  great  cause  of  the  decline  of  the  imperial  authority, 
and  the  ruin  of  the  empire. 

Tumults  at  Rome,  against  the  authority  of  the  pope. 
|  Innocent  II. 

#  The  power  of  the  Church  of  Rome  in  England  was 
greatly  increased  during  the  reign  of  Stephen. 

"  The  kings  of  Portugal,  Arragon,  England,  Scotland, 
Sardinia,  the  two  Sicilies,  and  several  others,  became,  in 
course  of  time,  vassals  and  tributaries  to  the  Papal  See ;  and 
there  is  not  a  doubt  that  the  universal  monarchy,  the 
scheme  of  which  Gregory  VII.  had  conceived,  would  have 
been  completely  established,  if  some  of  his  successors  had 

r  3 


246  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       {Fifth 

been  endowed  with  his  vast  ambition  and  his  superior 
genius."   (Koch.) 

About  this  time,  the  icealth  of  the  Church  was  immense. 
Its  territories  are  supposed  to  have  included  nearly  one  half 
of  the  empire. 

1143  Clemens  and  Leontius,  two  Cappadocian  bishops,  de- 
posed as  Bogomili.  Soon  after,  Niphon,  a  monk  cele- 
brated for  his  study  of  Scripture,  and  Cosmas,  the  pious 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  were  deposed  on  the  same 
charge. 

1 145  Tumults  and  seditions  at  Rome  continue ;  promoted  by 
the  doctrines  of  Arnold  of  Brescia.  The  Romans  re- 
quest Conrad  III.  to  make  Rome  the  seat  of  his  empire, 
and  insist  upon  rendering  "  to  Caesar  the  things  that  are 
Caesar's,  and  to  the  Pope  the  things  that  are  the  Pope's/' 
Eugenius  obliged  to  flee  from  Rome ;  but  soon  finds 
his  authority  supported  by  the  influence  of  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux.  This  well-meaning  and  pious,  but  mistaken, 
man,  advocates  the  papal  authority  by  his  writings  (De 
Consideratione,  libb.  v.).  He  probably  considered  only 
the  good  which  might  arise  from  the  due  exercise  of 
power  by  sovereign  pontiffs,  forgetting  the  evils  which 
must  flow  from  the  (more  than  probable)  abuse  of  such 
authority,  and  overlooking  the  precepts  of  Scripture  on 
the  subject. 

Eudon  de  Stella,  or  Eon,  a  fanatic  in  Bretagne  and 
Gascogne. 

1 147  The  Second  Crusade, 

under  the  Emperor  Conrad,  and  the  King  of  France, 
Louis  VII.  ;  promoted  by  the  preaching  of  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux. 

This  Crusade  tends  to  renew  and  establish  the  power  of  the 
pope,  under  whose  auspices  it  was  undertaken. 

About  this  time,  the  Monophysite  Armenians,  oppressed 
by  the  Turks,  consent  to  an  union  with  the  Church  of 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.      247 


1147 


1149 


1150 


Rome.     Subsequently  this  union  was  more  or  less  firm, 
according  to  political  circumstances. 

The  pope  sends  a  legate,  Cardinal  Bishop  Alberic,  of 
Ostia,  accompanied  by  Bernard,  into  Languedoc,  for  the 
suppression  of  the  Henricians.  Henry  captured  ;  sentenced 
to  perpetual  imprisonment  by  Council  of  Rheims  1148; 
died  1149. 


Eugenius  compels  the  people  of  Rome  to  submit  to  his 
authority. 

A  controversy  exists  in  the  Greek  Church  relating  to 
a  passage  in  their  liturgy  concerning  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ. 

The  principal  controversies  in  the  Latin  Church  during 
this  century  related  to  the  method  of  studying  and  teach- 
ing theology;  the  eucharist;  the  will  of  God;  the  im- 
maculate conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 


Among  the  errors  finally  established  by  writers  of  this 
century  may  be  reckoned  especially,  —  the  doctrine  of 
papal  authority ;  the  nature  and  value  of  indulgences ; 
the  inexpediency  of  reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  ver- 
nacular tongue ;  transubstantiation. 

The  system  of  theology  had  now  undergone  a  remark- 
able change  in  consequence  of  the  adoption  of  logic  and 
metaphysics,  and  the  foundation  of  large  schools  and 
universities,  especially  that  of  Paris.  The  following  may  be 
described  as  its  general  characteristics  during  this  age  :  — 

1.  The  foundation  consisted  of  sentences  of  the  Fathers, 
together  with  passages  of  Scripture  badly  interpreted. 

2.  The  sentences  of  Fathers  were  carefully  collected 
and  arranged. 

3.  Some  divines  received  and  propounded  these  doc- 
trines simply; 

4.  While  others  defended  and  interpreted  them  by  the 
aid  of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy; 

5.  And  others  used  still  greater  freedom  in  philosophi- 
sing upon  religious  truth  and  the  grounds  of  it,  introduc- 

lt  4 


248 


FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII. 


{Fifth 


1150 
1151 


1152 


1153 


ing  the  dialectic  method  (Schoolmen);  and  these  were 
divided  among  themselves  into  various  parties  and  classes  ; 

6.  On  which  account  they  were  attacked  by  others, 
with  more  or  less  reason,  and  in  some  cases  even  per- 
secuted. 

The  pretended  science  of  Alchymy  is  zealously  culti- 
vated by  clergy  and  monks. 

Severities  of  Penance  and  Excommunication  carried  to 
a  great  height,  and  employed  as  a  means  of  spiritual  des- 
potism ;  but  rendered  nugatory  as  to  any  moral  effect  by 
the  doctrine  and  practice  of  Indulgences. 

(1 156.)  Carmelite  order  of  monks  founded  by  Berthold, 
on  Mount  Carmel. 

Quarrel  between  the  Cistercians  and  the  Monks  of 
Clugny.  

About  this  time  the  study  of  the  Civil  Law  revives, 
and  makes  great  progress,  especially  at  Bologna.  Ten 
thousand  students  at  that  university. 

|  Robert  Pulley n,  scholastic  writer  (Book  of  Sen- 
tences). 

Gratian  (a  Benedictine  of  Bologna)  publishes  a  new 
collection  of  the  Canon  Law,  combining  the  ancient 
Canons  and  Decretals,  with  the  Pseudo-Isidorian,  and 
those  of  later  date;  and  attempting  to  account  for  dis- 
crepancies (Concordantia  Discordantium  Canonum)  — 
Gratiani  Decretum,  sive  Corpus  Decretorum. 

After  this,  the  Canon  Law  became  a  subject  of  diligent 
study.  Controversy  between  the  Legistae  and  Decre- 
tistae. 


Frederic  I.  (Barbarossa)  Emperor. 
Caliphs  of  Bagdad  restored. 


t  Bernard  of  Clairvaux.  He  was  distinguished  by 
simple  and  unaffected  piety  (strongly  tinctured  with  the 
prevalent  superstition  and  asceticism),  united  with  great 
energy  of  character,  and  persevering  zeal  and  devotion  in 
the  cause  of  religion.     His  influence  was  extensive,  and 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     249 

in  many  respects  highly  beneficial.      But  be  was  also 
distinguished  by  a  mistaken  devotedness    to   the  papal 
cause. 
1154  t  Gilbert,  Bishop  of  Poitiers. 


#  Henry  II.  (Plantagenet)  King  of  England. 
Frederic  claims  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 


An   Englishman   (Nicholas  Breakspeare)    made  pope, 
under  the  title  of  Adrian  IV. 
H55  Arnold  of  Brescia  seized,  and  burnt. 


Frederic  crowned  by  the  Pope.     Frederic  resolves  to 
set  himself  in  opposition  to  papal  claims. 

Noiv  begins  the  struggle   (which  lasted  nearly  a  century) 
between  the   Ghibelines  (or  imperial  party,  of  the  House  of 
Hohenstaufen)  and  the  Guelphs  (or  papal  faction). 

The  struggle  between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibelines,  with  its 
results,  carried  the  power  of  the  Papacy  to  its  height. 

The  compilation  of  the  Canon  Law  by  Gratian  assists  the 
growth  of  papal  power. 


11.56  T  Peter  Maurice  (the  Venerable),  Abbot  of  Clugny. 


About  this  time  the  Gospel  is  propagated  in  Branden- 
burg and  its  neighbourhood. 

1157  Eric  IX.  of  Sweden  introduces  Christianity  into  Fin- 
land by  force  of  arms.  Founds  the  first  bishopric  in  that 
country. 

Frederic  treats  with  contempt  a  haughty  and  patronising 
letter  of  the  pope.  He  prescribes  limits  to  pilgrimages  and 
appeals  to  Rome,  and  thus  seeks  to  weaken  the  dependence 
of  the  German  Church  upon  the  Papal  See.  The  pope 
complains  of  the  emperor's  proceedings,  in  a  letter  to  the 

1158  German  bishops.  (1158.)  Frederic  obliges  the  pope  to 
explain,  with  moderation,  the  terms  of  his  letter.  Diet  of 
Roncaglia  defines  the  emperor's  rights,  to  the  disparage- 


250  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         (Fifth 

ment  of  those  of  the  pope  and  bishops.  The  pope,  highly 
exasperated,  was  on  the  point  of  excommunicating  the 
emperor,  when  he  died,  1159. 


Rise  of  Universities,  with  important  immunities  and  privileges. 
t  Gratian. 
1159  Peter  Lombard,  Bishop  of  Paris. 


Alexander  III.  elected  pope  in  the  hierarchical  interest; 
Victor  IV.  on  the  emperor's  side. 

This  election  of  two  rival  popes  favours  the  emperor's 
design  of  weakening  the  papal  power. 
11 60  The  emperor  convenes  a  general  council  at  Pavia.  The 
rival  popes  summoned  to  appear  before  it.  Alexander 
denounces  the  act  of  the  emperor  as  an  unjustifiable  lay 
interference  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  The  council  recog- 
nises Victor  as  pope,  and  the  emperor  espouses  his  cause. 


1161 


1162 


About  this  time,  various  sects,  in  opposition  to  the  domi- 
nant church,  commonly  designated  Mystics,  exist  in  the 
South  of  France,  the  North  of  Italy,  Germany,  Flanders, 
England,  and  even  Spain. 

*  First  instance  of  punishment  for  Heresy  in  England. 

Some  Germans,  under  Gerhard,  who  are  said  to  have 
rejected  the  sacraments,  and  to  have  opposed  marriage, 
were  examined  before  a  synod  at  Oxford,  and  punished 
for  their  offence  by  being  branded  on  the  forehead. 


*  Henry  II.  of  England  enters  into  a  struggle  with  the 
pope.  The  English  clergy  had  become  independent  of 
the  state,  and  Henry  sought  to  confirm  their  independence 
and  power  within  certain  limits. 

Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony,  conquers  the  Obo- 
trites,  and  completes  the  overthrow  of  Heathenism  among 
the  Wends  (between  the  Elbe  and  Oder). 

*  Thomas  a  Becket  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
He  soon  begins  to  take  part  with  the  clergy  against  the 
king. 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.       251 

|  Peter  Lombard  (Book  of  Sentences). 

In  his  celebrated  work,  Lombard  united  the  two  systems 
of  scholastic  and  ecclesiastical  theology. 

Penance  and  Indulgence.  Peter  Lombard  first  esta- 
blished the  distinction  between  contritio  cordis,  confessio 
oris,  and  satisfactio  operis.  Concerning  penance  and  in- 
dulgence, he  argued  thus  :  —  In  baptism,  all  sin  is  for- 
given, and  salvation  bestowed  for  Christ's  sake  ;  but  sins 
committed  after  baptism  expose  men  to  the  punishment 
of  divine  justice,  and  this  punishment  is  inflicted  on  most 
men  by  the  fire  of  purgatory ;  but,  according  to  a  power 
committed  to  the  Church,  through  the  merits  of  Christ, 
this  future  punishment  may  be  commuted  into  the  in- 
fliction of  temporal  chastisements;  and  the  Church  has 
also  power  to  remit  even  these  chastisements,  on  con- 
sideration of  certain  services,  or  compliance  with  certain 
demands.  But  Lombard  taught  that  such  remission  or 
indulgence  could  avail  only  those  who,  notwithstanding 
their  infirmities,  lived  in  the  possession  and  exercise  of  a 
lively  faith.  This  scheme,  however,  served  as  the  basis 
of  further  error.  It  led  the  way  to  continued  refinements 
(e.  g.  by  Alexander,  Albert,  and  Thomas) ;  and  was  liable 
to  misrepresentation  and  misconception. 


#  Constitutions  of  Clarendon, 
for  the  protection  of  the  rights  and  prerogatives  of  the 
crown  against  the  claims  of  the  clergy,  and  for  restraining 
the  independence  of  the  latter. 

Becket  at  first  assents  to  the  Constitutions,  but  soon 
after  resists  them.  He  quarrels  with  the  king,  and  seeks 
refuge  in  France,  where  he  is  protected  by  Louis. 

#  The  Pope  takes  up  the  cause  of  Becket  against 
Henry.     He  condemns  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon. 

*  Becket  excommunicates  all  who  should  observe  the 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and  threatens  the  king  himself 
with  a  similar  sentence. 


Frederic  in  Italy. 


252 


FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 


II67        League  of  Italian  cities  for  the  preservation  of  their 
liberties. 


1168  Alexander,  in  connection  with  the  States  of  Lombardy, 
had  now  established  a  paramount  authority  as  pope,  in 
opposition  to  his  rival,  who  was  supported  by  the 
emperor. 

1169  The  island  Riigen,  the  last  refuge  of  Heathenism  in 
Pomerania,  subdued  by  the  Danish  king,  Waldemar. 
Idolatrous  temples  destroyed,  and  the  inhabitants  bap- 
tized. 

1170  *  Becket  returns  to  England,  after  a  reconciliation  or 
compromise  with  the  king.     Murder  of  Becket. 


The  power  of  the  emperor  in  Italy  is  now  broken. 


Controversy  in  the  Greek  Church  concerning  the  words, 
"  My  Father  is  greater  than  I." 


Mission  of  Theorianus  into  Armenia,  with  a  view  to 
the  re-union  of  the  Greek  and  Armenian  Churches  — 
ineffectual. 


Rise  of  the  Waldenses. 
Peter  Waldo,  a  citizen  of  Lyons,  founds  a  society  for 
the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  in  its  simplicity,  among  the 
poor.  His  followers  (the  Poor  Men  of  Isi/ons,  Humiliati, 
Sahbatati)  at  first  appear  merely  as  a  set  of  monks,  not 
distinguished  by  any  peculiar  opposition  to  the  dominant 
church.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  Waldenses;  (which 
some,  however,  endeavour  to  trace  back  to  Claude  of 
Turin,  in  the  ninth  century). 


1171  Saladin,  Sultan  of  Egypt  to  1193. 
(He  extended  his  dominions  in  Egypt,  and  subdued 

Syria,  Assyria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Arabia.) 

1172  *  Conquest  of  Ireland. 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.       253 

#■  Extreme  indignation  of  the  pope  and  clergy  against 
Henry  II.  of  England,  as  the  supposed  instigator  of  the 
murder  of  Thomas  a  Becket. 


1173 


1174 


1177 


1178 


1179 


t  Richard  of  St.  Victor. 


Thomas  a  Becket  canonized  by  Alexander. 
(Alexander  claimed  for   the  pope    the   sole   right   of 
canonizing  saints.) 


Frederic  in  Italy,  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Legnano. 
The  emperor  is   obliged   to  recognise    Alexander   as 
pope.     He  receives  absolution. 

#  Henry  II.  compelled  to  do  penance  at  the  tomb  of 
Thomas  a  Becket. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux  canonized. 
The  sovereignty  of  the  Adriatic  granted  to  the  Vene- 
tians by  the  pope  (Alexander  III.). 
Peace  of  Venice. 


The  prevalent  superstition  is  now  supported,  as  much 
perhaps  by  fraud  and  imposture  on  the  one  hand,  as  by 
ignorance  on  the  other. 


A  correspondence  takes  place  between  the  pope  (Alex- 
ander III.)  and  the  Christian  (Nestorian)  king  in  Eastern 
Asia,  a  descendant  of  Johannes  Presbyter. 


Waldenses.  John,  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  forbids  the 
preaching  of  the  followers  of  Waldo.  They  continue  their 
preaching,  but  without  any  formal  separation  from  the 
Church.  In  the  following  year,  Waldo  transmits  to  the 
pope  a  copy  of  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the 
plan  of  his  society,  with  a  petition  for  the  confirmation  of 
the  latter.     Alexander  refuses  his  sanction. 


For  the  prevention  of  disputes  at  the  election  of  popes, 
it  was  enacted  by  the  Lateran  Council  held  this  year,  that 


254  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY    VII.  [Fifth 

the  person  chosen  by  two  thirds  of  the  cardinals  should 
be  regarded  as  the  true  pope. 
1179        The    Third    Lateran    Council   excommunicates    the 
Cathari,  Paterini,   and  Publicani,  sects  in  the    South   of 
France. 


1180  Alexius  II.  (Comnenus)  Emp.  East. 

Philip  II.  (Auguste)  King  of  France. 


Controversy  in  the  Greek  Church  concerning  the  Mo- 
hammedan doctrine  of  the  Deity. 


1181  t  John  of  Salisbury,  Bishop  of  Chartres. 


1182        The  Monothelite  Maronites  conform  to  the  Church  of 
Rome. 


1183  Andronicus  Comnenus,  Emp.  East. 


1184  Waldenses.  The  pope,  at  the  Council  of  Verona,  de- 
nounces the  Waldenses  as  an  unprivileged  society,  and 
excommunicates  them. 


1185  Isaac  Angel  us,  Emp.  East. 


Administration  of  the  eucharist  to  children  forbidden 
in  France. 


Laws  relating  to  the  'payment  of  tithes  are  now  universally 
and  effectually  enforced. 


1186  The  Livonians  had  become  acquainted  with  Christianity 
by  means  of  their  intercourse  with  Bremen  and  Lubeck. 
In  1186,  Meinard  of  Holstein  undertook  a  mission  for 
the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Livonia.  His  labours 
were  successful;  and,  in  1188,  he  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Uxkull. 

1 187  The  Saracens,  under  Saladin,  capture  Jerusalem.  Fresh 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.      255 

ardour  in  the  cause  of  the  Holy  Land  pervades  Europe. 
Hence  originates 

The  Third  Crusade. 


*  Richard  I.  (Cceur  de  Lion)  King  of  England. 


The  Emperor  Frederic  advances  on  the  Third  Crusade. 

Richard  I.  (Coeur  de  Lion)  of  England,  and  Philip  II. 
( Auguste)  of  France  proceed  on  the  Third  Crusade. 
Henry  VI.  Emperor  and  King  of  Italy. 

At  Paris,  Peter  Cantor  recommends  spiritual  and 
practical  religion  in  preference  to  formal  devotion  and 
dead  ceremonies ;  but  his  doctrine  finds  little  acceptance. 

The  Waldenses,  after  their  excommunication,  spread 
themselves  in  the  South  of  France,  the  North  of  Italy,  and 
Germany.  They  now  purify  their  system  of  doctrine 
more  and  more  from  ecclesiastical  errors  and  corruptions  ; 
proclaim  the  Bible  as  its  own  interpreter,  and  the  only  infal- 
lible source  of  Christian  knoicledge ;  contend  against  the 
adoration  of  saints,  and  other  superstitious  observances; 
shame  the  great  majority  of  the  Catholic  clergy  by  their 
superior  acquaintance  with  Scripture;  and  acquire  ge- 
neral respect  by  their  good  conversation,  equally  removed 
from  fanaticism,  and  from  a  cold,  selfish,  worldly  form  of 
religion. 


■&s 


Switzerland  becomes  a  province  of  the  German  Empire. 

The  Teutonic  order  of  knights,   founded    in  Palestine, 
confirmed  by  the  pope  (Calixtus  III.). 


Dominions  of  Saladin  divided. 
The  Emperor  Henry  VI.  is  King  of  Sicily,  and  power 
ful  in  Italy. 

Alexius  III.  (Angel us)  Emp.  East. 
(Isaac  deposed.) 


256  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 

1197r       Peter  Waldo  died  this  year  in   Bohemia,   whither  he 
'  had  fled. 

(al.  1180.)  f  Peter  Cantor.  In  his  manual,  entitled 
Verbum  Abbreviation,  he  maintained  that  all  doctrines 
necessary  to  salvation  are  contained  in  Scripture,  or  may 
be  deduced  from  it. 


Opposition  having  been  made  by  the  Livonians  to  B^r- 
thold,  successor  of  Meinhard  as  Bishop  of  Uxkull,  he 
sought  safety  in  flight.  The  pope  institutes  a  Crusade 
against  the  Livonians,  and  Berthold  returns  with  an  army 
in  order  to  enforce  submission.  The  Crusaders  conquer, 
but  Berthold  falls  in  battle.  Albert  of  Apeldern,  Bishop 
of  Uxkull.  (The  bishopric  of  Uxkull  was  transferred 
to  Riga  in  1200.) 


1198  Philip  of  Suabia  (House  of  Hohenstaufen,  supported  by 
the  Ghibelines)  and  Otho  of  Saxony  (supported  by  the 
Guelphs)  dispute  the  imperial  crown,  after  the  death  of 
Henry. 

The  new  pope  (Innocent  III.),  a  man  of  great  ability 
and  address,  zealous  for  the  interests  of  the  Church.  The 
death  of  the  emperor,  leaving  a  son  only  three  years  old, 
furnished  an  opportunity  for  the  encroachments  of  papal 
power,  and  the  aggrandisement  of  the  Roman  See. 

The  power  of  the  Roman  Pontiffs  had  now  nearly  reached 
its  height. 

They  had  usurped  the  nomination  and  collation  to 
almost  all  ecclesiastical  benefices;  founding  the  assumed 
right  on  the  false  Decretals,  according  to  which  all  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction  emanates  from  the  court  of  Rome. 

Innocent  describes  himself  as  u  the  successor  of  St. 
Peter,  set  up  by  God  to  govern  not  only  the  Church  but 
the  whole  world."  "As  God,"  said  he,  "has  placed  two  great 
luminaries  in  the  firmament,  the  one  to  rule  the  day  and 
the  other  to  give  light  by  night,  so  has  he  established  two 
grand  powers,  the  pontifical  and  the  royal;  and  as  the 
moon  receives  her  light  from  the  sun,  so  does  royalty 
borrow  its  splendour  from  the  papal  authority." 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     257 

1 1 98  Albigenses. 

The  pope  sends  legates  armed  with  complete  powers  for 
the  suppression  of  sects  in  the  South  of  France,  which  the 
bishops  had  been  unable  to  overthrow.  They  had  been 
protected  by  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse. 


Order  of  the  Holy  Trinity  founded  by  John  of  Mattha 
and  Felix  of  Valois,  for  the  redemption  of  Christians 
made  prisoners  by  Infidels. 


t  Peter    Comestor,    Chancellor    of    Paris    (Historia 
Scholastica). 

1 1 99  *  John,  King  of  England. 


Innocent  III.  undertakes  to  examine  the  claims  of  the 
rival  candidates  for  the  empire.  He  obliges  the  prefect  of 
Rome  to  swear  homage  to  the  Apostolic  See. 


During  this  century  several  councils  were  held  which 
were  entitled  General ;  but  they  were  not  recognised  as 
such  by  the  Greek  Church,  or  even  by  all  the  churches 
of  the  West.  They  were  convened  in  the  Lateran,  at  the 
will  of  the  pope,  and  for  the  advantage  of  the  See  of  Rome. 


Heathen  revelries  and  buffooneries  connected  with 
various  Christian  festivals,  under  the  auspices  of  the  clergy, 
notwithstanding  the  prohibitions  of  the  pope. 


The  misunderstanding  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
Churches  had  continued,  notwithstanding  various  embas- 
sies and  disputations  with  a  view  to  an  accommodation. 
The  political  aggressions  of  the  Western  powers,  about 
this  time,  tended  to  confirm  and  widen  the  breach. 
1200  The  pope  imposes  a  tax  on  ecclesiastical  revenues,  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  a  Crusade  (Saladin  Tax). 

The  Armenian  Church  begins  to  make  a  partial  sub- 
mission to  the  Church   of  Rome,  with  a  view  to  protec- 

s 


258  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         (Fifth 

tion.     The    union    never    became    complete ;  no  perfect 
conformity  in  doctrine  or  ceremonial  established. 


Amalric  of  Bene,  and  his  disciple  David  of  Dinanto, 
leaders  of  a  philosophico-mystic,  or  pantheistic,  sect. 


1200  |  Peter  of  Blois. 


1201         The  order  of  Poor  Catholics,  one  of  the  earliest  mendi- 
cant orders,  confirmed  by  Innocent. 

History  now  abounds  with  instances  of  prescribed 
penances,  —  flagellations,  —  daily  repetition  of  a  certain 
number  of  prayers,  — -  and  alleged  appearances  of  spirits 
detained  in  purgatory,  exhorting  the  faithful  to  prayers, 
masses,  and  the  like. 


The  Pope  decides  in  favour  of  Otho  as  emperor.  The 
adherents  of  Philip  protest  against,  his  interference  in  the 
matter.  But  the  pope  maintains  that,  as  it  belonged  to 
him  to  crown  and  consecrate  the  emperor,  it  was  also  his 
province  to  determine  beforehand  who  may  justly  lay 
claim  to  that  honour. 

Contests  between  Philip  and  Otho  continue. 
\Q002  Order  of  Fratres  Militice  Christi,  or  Gladiferi,  esta- 

blished in  Livonia,  for  the  maintenance  and  propagation 
of  Christianity  in  that  country. 

The  Fourth  Crusade, 
undertaken  chiefly   by  French  and  Venetians  ;    diverted 
from  its  object,  and  ends  in  the  siege  and  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople, in  favour  of 
1204  Isaac  and  Alexius  IV.  Emp.  East. 

Second   siege  and   capture  of  Constantinople  by   the 
Crusaders,  after  the  murder  of  Isaac  and  Alexius. 
Alexius  Due  as  Murzuphilus,  Emp.  East. 
Establishment  of  the  Latin  Empire  in  the  East. 
Baldwin,  Latin  Emperor  at  Constantinople. 
(Under  the  Latin  Empire  in  the  East  (1204—1261)  the 
Church  of  Constantinople  is  subject  to  the  See  of  Rome.) 


Period.)         to  the  beginning   of  the  reformation.      259 

The  March  of  Ancona  and  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto  were 
added  to  the  domains  of  the  Church  during  the  pontificate 
of  Innocent  III. 

About  this  time,  history  records  many  instances  of  the 
exercise  of  papal  authority  over  temporal  princes.  Thus 
Philip  (Auguste)  of  France  was  compelled  to  receive 
again  his  queen  Ingeburgis,  whom  he  had  put  away; 
Alfonso  IX.  of  Leon  was  obliged  to  put  away  his  queen 
on  account  of  consanguinity ;  Sancho  I.  of  Portugal,  to 
pay  arrears  of  tribute;  Peter  of  Arragon,  to  make  his 
dominions  tributary  to  the  pope ;  John  of  Bulgaria,  to 
receive  his  crown  at  the  pope's  hands. 


1204 


1206 


The  act  of kneeling  at  the  elevation  of  the  Host  in  churches, 
and  when  carried  through  the  streets  to  the  sick,  enjoined 
by  Guido,  papal  legate,  at  Cologne.  This  law  was  made 
universal  by  Pope  Honorius  III.  in  1217. 


Henry,  Latin  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 

Dgengis  Khan  begins  his  career  of  conquest  in  the  East, 
and  founds  the  Mogul  Empire. 

This  conqueror  does  not  persecute  the  Christians  in  the 
East ;  he  is  said  to  have  had  a  Christian  wife.  He  per- 
mits the  Nestorian  clergy  to  labour  among  the  Moguls ; 
but  this  probably  led  to  no  more  than  the  adoption  of  a 
few  Christian  ceremonies  by  that  people. 


t  Nicetas  Acominatus,  Byzantine  historian. 
University  of  Paris  founded. 


Early  foundation  of  the  Inquisition.  ■+ 

The  Waldens'es,  and  other  sects,  promote  the  circula- 
tion and  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  Societies  having 
been  formed  at  Mentz  for  the  reading  and  exposition  of 
Scripture  and  mutual  edification,  the  bishop  of  Mentz 
resolved  to  exterminate  them.  But  the  pope  (Innocent 
III.)  protected  them,  and  encouraged  the  laity  in  their 

s  2 


260  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.        (Fifth 

attempts  to  understand  the  Scriptures,  and  to  edify  one 
another. 

1207        Theodore  Lascaris,  Greek  Emperor  at  Nicaea.     Other 
independent  Greek  princes. 


1208 


Rise  of  the  Franciscan  order  of  Mendicants. 
Francis  (John  Bernadoni,  a  native  of  Assisi  in  Umbria, 
born  1182,  surnamed  Franciscus  the  Frenchman)  and  a 
few  friends,  —  resolved  to  carry  into  practice  the  idea  of 
complete  self-denial  and  devotion  to  God,  with  renuncn 
ation  of  all  temporal  possessions,  and  of  a  life  entirely 
dedicated  to  Christ  and  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  — 
founds  a  society,  the  members  of  which  should  oblige 
themselves  to  live  in  absolute  poverty,  subsisting  only 
upon  alms,  and  to  preach  the  Gospel  among  the  people 
with  apostolic  simplicity  of  life  and  manners.  As  early 
as  1209,  Innocent  declared  himself  favourable  to  the  in- 
stitution ;  but  the  order  was  not  finally  established  until 
1223. 


Philip  murdered.  Otho  IV.  universally  acknowledged 
Emperor  of  Germany. 

*  King  John,  of  England,  resists  the  pope's  appoint- 
ment of  Stephen  Langton  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
bury. The  pope  lays  the  kingdom  under  an  interdict 
(i.  e.  forbids  the  celebration  of  divine  offices). 


Gothofred,  a  Cistercian  Abbot,  preaches  Christianity  in 
Prussia  with  some  success. 


ATbigenses.  The  death  of  a  papal  legate  in  the  South 
of  France  by  an  unknown  hand  occasions  the  adoption  of 
severe  measures  against  the  sectaries  in  the  South  of 
France.  Arnold,  Abbot  of  Citeaux,  preaches  a  crusade 
against  them.  Under  the  general  name  of  Albigenses, 
they  are  murderously  persecuted  during  the  next  twenty 
years. 


Period,)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     261 

1209|       Several    followers    of  Amalric  put  to    death   by    the 
Council  of  Paris ;  the  sect  gradually  dispersed. 


1210 


1212 


1213 


The  Emperor  Otho  crowned  by  the  Pope. 
#  The  Pope  excommunicates  John,  King  of  England. 


The  Council  of  Paris  orders  all  the  works  of  Aristotle 
to  be  burnt. 


Otho  maintains  certain  imperial  rights  against  the  pope. 
He  is  placed  under  a  bann. 


Waldenses.  The  pope  endeavours  to  bring  the  Poor 
Men  of  Lyons  ( Waldenses)  within  the  limits  and  under  con- 
troul  of  the  Church,  as  a  society  of  Poor  Catholics.  But 
his  efforts  are  now  too  late.  The  Waldenses  had  pene- 
trated too  deeply  into  the  truths  of  the  Gospel,  and  had 
imbibed  too  much  of  their  spirit,  to  endure  any  admix- 
ture of  Catholic  errors  with  their  creed ;  and  they  were 
become,  by  God's  grace,  too  wise  to  fall  into  the  snare 
prepared  for  them.  They  preserved  their  distinct  charac- 
ters as  independent  witnesses  of  the  truth  ;  and  henceforth 
became  subject  to  violent  persecutions,  which  they  meekly 
endured  for  conscience  sake. 


Beghards  or  Beguines  in  Flanders  and  Germany.  Tur- 
lupins  in  France. 

The  Abbot  Joachim  uttered  predictions  against  the 
Papal  See,  and  was  a  declared  enemy  to  the  scholastic 
theology.  He  had  many  followers,  who  were  called 
Joachites. 

The  pope  favours  Frederick  of  Sicily  in  his  attempts 
to  secure  the  imperial  crown. 

#  He  deposes  John,  King  of  England ;  and  promises 
his  crown  to  the  King  of  France, 

#  John  submits  to  the  Pope,  surrenders  his  kingdom 
to  him,  and  receives  it  back  as  a  fief  of  the  See  of  Rome. 

s  3 


262  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.        {Fifth 

1214  Otho  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Bovines  ;  obliged  to  re- 
tire from  the  contest. 

1215  Frederick  II.  crowned  Emperor  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
*   English  Magna  Charta  signed. 


Christian,  one  of  Gothofred's  companions,  Bishop  of 
Prussia. 

The  Gospel  had  made  some  progress  in  Prussia ;  but 
this  was  checked  in  consequence  of  attempts  on  the  part 
of  the  dukes  of  Poland  and  Pomerania  to  make  use  of 
Christian  missions  for  the  purposes  of  oppressing  the 
Prussians.  The  Christian  teachers  were  driven  out  of 
the  country,  and  war  ensued.  Hence  the  orders  of  knights 
were  afterwards  excited  to  propagate  Christianity  in  Prussia 
with  the  sword. 


The  Fourth  Lateran  Council;  assembled  chiefly  with 
the  view  of  promoting  a  new  Crusade,  and  for  the  reform- 
ation of  the  Church.  Further  multiplication  of  monastic 
orders  forbidden.  Payment  of  tithes  declared  to  be  a 
duty  of  common  right. 

Throughout  this  century,  the  Holy  See  remains  at   the 
height  of  power  to  which  it  had  attained  during  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Innocent.   The  resistance  of  the  House  of  Hohenstavfen 
tends  rather  to  increase,  than  to  diminish,  its  influence. 
Provisional  mandates.     Gratias  exspectativae. 

The  election  of  Bishops  is  now  generally  vested  in 
chapters. 

The  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation  declared  to  he  an  article 
of  faith  by  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council. 

But  many  divines  (of  Paris)  during  this  century  con- 
tended for  the  possibility  of  the  real  presence  of  the  body 
of  Christ  in  the  sacrament,  without  any  change  in  the 
substance  of  the  bread.  They  held  that  there  may  be  an 
union  of  two  substances  in  consecrated  bread  (the  later 
Lutheran  doctrine  of  Consubstantiation). 

The  pope  endeavours  to  counteract  some  of  the  abuses 
now  connected  with  Penance  and  Absolution.  As  a  remedy, 
it  was  enacted  by   the  Fourth   Lateran  Council  that  all 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     l263 

laymen  should  confess  their  sins,  general  and  particular, 
to  a  priest,  at  least  once  a  year.  Establishment  of  com- 
pulsory auricular  confession,, 
1215  The  Fourth  Lateran  Council  obliges  all  persons  to  com- 
municate in  the  Lord's  supper,  at  least  once  a  year,  under 
pain  of  excommunication. 

The  foundation  of  new  monastic  orders  was  prohibited 
by  a  decree  of  the  Lateran  Council. 

But  in  the  same  year,  Innocent  gave  his  assent  to  the 
plan  of  Dominic,  a  Spanish  presbyter  and  canon,  for  the 
formation  of  an  order  for  the  purposes  of  preaching  and 
the  religious  instruction  of  the  people,  on  condition  that 
it  should  conform  to  the  rule  already  extant  under  the 
name  of  Augustin,  with  certain  modifications.  And  in 
1216  this  order  of  preachers  was  formally  established 
(Fratres  Praedicatores).      Such  was  the 

Origin  of  the  Dominican  Order. 

The  conduct  and  professions  of  certain  sectaires,  who 
inveighed  against  ecclesiastical  corruption  and  luxury,  and 
were  regarded  as  the  enemies  of  the  Church,  is  said  to 
have  occasioned  and  suggested  the  foundation  of  mendi- 
cant orders  under  the  sanction  of  the  Church,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  rendering  it  more  efficient,  or  at  least  of  uphold- 
ing its  credit  with  the  people. 


|  Theodore  Balsamon. 


Cities    now  begin   to    erect    themselves    into   political 
bodies,  and  to  form,  by  degrees,  a  third  order,  distinct 
from  that  of  the  clergy  and  nobility.    Rise  of  Communes, 
or  Free  Corporations. 
1216  #  Henry  III.  King  of  England. 


1217  The  Fifth  Crusade, 
under    Andrew  II.    King    of   Hungary.       Unimportant. 
No  permanent  results. 

1218  Death,  of  Otho.     Frederic  renews  the  war  in  Italy. 
During  the  pontificate  of  Honorius,  the  emperor  is  on 

s   4 


264  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       {Fifth 

good  terms  with  the  pope :  chiefly  by  promising  to  pre- 
pare a  new  Crusade. 


1219 
1220 


The  Franciscan  order  now  includes  five  thousand 
monks. 

The  Emperor  Frederic  II.  cedes  to  Honorius  III.  the 
patrimony  of  the  Countess  Matilda,  afterwards  designated 
as  the  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter. 


State  and  Prospects  of  Religion. 

On  the  one  hand,  symptoms  of  the  revival  of  religion 
appear  —  in  the  lives  and  influence  of  individuals  distin- 
guished by  fervent  and  devoted  piety,  such  as  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux  and  Francis ;  in  the  interest  connected  with 
religious  subjects,  which  had  been  awakened  by  the  Cru- 
sades ;  and  in  the  rapid  and  wide  spread  of  sects  distin- 
guished by  their  profession  of  simple  and  practical  piety. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  was  —  much  ignorance  and 
superstition  even  in  the  minds  of  those  who  were  most 
distinguished  by  sanctity  and  zeal;  and  the  multitude 
lived  in  the  indulgence  of  unbridled  licentiousness  and 
sensuality.  The  ignorance  and  evil  lives  of  the  great 
body  of  the  clergy  formed  also  a  barrier  to  improve- 
ment. 

Superstition  was  at  its  height.  Adoration  of  relics, 
belief  in  fabulous  miracles  and  legends  of  the  saints,  pilgrim- 
ages to  places  accounted  sacred,  and  the  like,  were  universal, 
notwithstanding  the  (partial)  remonstrances  of  such  men 
as  Bernard,  Hildebert  (Archbishop  of  Tours,  1134), 
Guibert  of  Nogent,  Eckbert  (Bishop  of  Munster),  Abelard, 
and  others.  Idolatrous  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary  ex- 
ceeded all  bounds :  to  this  Bernard,  Bonaventura,  and 
other  eminent  men  consented,  although  they  refused  to 
admit  the  doctrine  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the 
Virgin.  The  superstitious  abuse  of  the  sacraments  was 
also  carried  to  excess. 


Dominic  obliges   the  members  of  his  order  to  take  a 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     265 

vow  of  poverty.  Thus  the  Dominican  order  becomes  Men- 
dicant As  such,  it  spreads  rapidly  throughout  Europe. 
Dominic  died  in  1221. 


1221  Extensive  conquests  of  Dgengis  Khan. 

Robert,  Latin  Emperor  at  Constantinople. 
During  this  century  the  number  of  serfs  in  Germany 
diminishes. 

Friars  Tertiary.  Francis  establishes  his  Tertius  Ordo 
de  Pcenitentia,  for  persons  wishing  to  live  in  the  bonds 
of  a  religious  society  without  being  subject  to  monastic 
rules. 

*  First  establishment  of  Mendicants  in  Oxford. 


1222  John  II.  (Vatazes)  Greek  Emperor, 

successful  against  the  Latins. 


1223 


j*  Peter  of  Corbeil. 
(al.  1260.)      University  of  Padua  founded. 


Louis  VIII.  King  of  France. 


Franciscan  order  of  Mendicants  formally  established, 
under  the  title  of  Fratres  Minores.  This  order  soon 
became  very  large  and  important. 


1225 


1226 


The  Church  of  Rome  is  strengthened  by  the  Mendicant 
Orders  lately  established,  and  now  rapidly  rising  into 
repute. 

The  emperor  promises  to  furnish  a  new  Crusade  within 
two  years,  under  penalty  of  excommunication. 


"f  Francis. 
Violent  disputes  arise  among  the  Franciscans, 
respecting  the  observance  of  their  rule ;  one  party  con- 
tending for  a  strict,  another  for  a  more  lax,  interpretation 
and  compliance. 


266  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         {Fifth 

1226  (St.)  Louis  IX.  King  of  France. 


12^7        Crusade  still  deferred.    The  new  pope  excommunicates 
the  emperor. 

The  Sixth  Crusade, 
under   the   Emperor   Frederic  II.       Peace  for  ten  years 
concluded  with  the  sultan.      Frederic  obtains  restoration 
of  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  Nazareth,  and  Sidon. 

These  successes  lead  to  a  professed  reconciliation  of  the 
emperor  and  the  pope. 


I*  Stephen  Langton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.      Said 
to  have  been  the  first  who  divided  the  Bible  into  chapters. 
Universities  of  Salamanca  and  Toulouse  founded. 


~LQ%g  The  Teaching  of  the  Church. 

The  reading  of  the  Scriptures  (which  had  been  sanc- 
tioned by  Innocent  III.),  having  led  to  the  discovery  of 
many  errors  in  the  doctrine  of  the  dominant  church,  the 
Council  of  Toulouse,  assembled  in  12*29,  decreed  that  lay- 
men should  not  possess  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  and  that 
they  should  read  the  Psalter  and  Breviary,  during  divine 
offices  only,  in  Latin. 

Rise  of  the  Inquisition. 

The  Council  of  Toulouse  adopts  and  enforces  a  decree 
of  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council,  providing  that  all  bishops 
should  appoint  sworn  men  in  different  parts  of  their  dio- 
ceses, to  discover  heretics  in  all  their  lurking-places,  and 
deliver  them  over  to  punishment;  and  that  every  man 
and  woman  should  once  in  every  two  years  take  an  oath 
of  fidelity  to  the  Roman  See,  and  bind  themselves  to 
assist  in  the  detection  of  heretics. 

The  council  enacts  that  in  every  diocese  one  priest  and 
several  laymen  should  be  appointed  to  search  for  heretics. 
Every  house  in  which  a  heretic  is  found  to  be  pulled 
down,  and  the  ground  confiscated. 

By  the  same  council,  all  householders  are  compelled  to 
attend  mass  every  Sunday  and  festival, 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     267 

1229  Baldwin  II.  Latin  Emperor  at  Constantinople. 


1230        The  Livonian  knights  (Gladiferi)  plant  Christianity  in 
Courland. 


Nuns  of  St.  Dominic. 


The  Western  Empire  gradually  decays. 
Frederic  II.  is   obliged    to   grant  charters    to  several 
princes  recognising  their  territorial  rights. 

A  series  of  quarrels  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor. 


The  Greek  emperors  are  anxious  to  bring  about  a  re- 
conciliation between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches. 
But  the  great  majority  of  the  Greek  clergy  offer  violent 
opposition  to  the  attempt.  Only  some  few  (Latinising) 
members  of  their  body  favour  it. 


The  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order  undertake  to  esta- 
blish Christianity  in  Prussia  by  force  of  arms,  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  Polish  Duke,  Conrad. 


1231  The  pope  commands  that  no  layman  shall  dispute, 
either  publicly  or  in  his  house,  concerning  the  Catholic 
Faith,  under  penalty  of  excommunication. 


The  Mendicants  now  possess  great  influence  in  the 
universities.  A  party  in  the  University  of  Paris,  headed 
by  William  de  St.  Amour,  resists  the  claims  of  the  Domi- 
nicans to  a  theological  chair. 

Order  of  Sylvestrians  founded  in  Italy,  under  the  rule  of 
Benedict. 

This  year  Gregory  publishes  a  bull  in  favour  of  the 
more  lax  Franciscans,  authorising  an  abatement  of  the 
rigour  of  their  rule. 


?v 


1232  The  Inquisition.  Gregory,  finding  the  bishops  not  suffi- 
ciently energetic  and  efficient  in  the  suppression  of  heresy, 
establishes,  first  at  Toulouse  and  Carcassone,  and  after- 


268  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.  (Fifth 

wards  in  other  districts,  tribunals  under  the  immediate 
authority  of  the  pope,  commissioned  to  receive  charges  of 
heresy,  to  seize  persons  suspected,  to  keep  them  in  con- 
finement as  long  as  may  be  deemed  necessary,  to  endeavour 
to  extort  confession  by  torture,  to  inflict  penances  (e.  g.  of 
imprisonment  for  life)  upon  those  who  should  recant,  and 
to  deliver  over  the  incorrigible  to  the  secular  arm  for 
capital  punishment. 

Inquisitores  PLeretic^:  Pravitatis  (Dominicans). 

Conrad  of  Marpurg,  a  Dominican,  first  inquisitor  in 
Germany,  having  executed  his  commission  with  cruel 
severity,  was  slain  by  some  German  nobles  in  1233. 


1233  Order  ofServites  founded. 

Convent  of  Port  Royal  des  Champs,  between  Paris  and 
Versailles,  founded. 


1234  Gregory  causes  Raymond  de  Penna  forti  to  compile  a 
systematic  collection  of  Canon  Law,  which  is  published  by 
authority,  as  a  means  of  repressing  frequent  fabrications 
and  forgeries  in  this  department  ( Deere talium  Gregorii 
P.  IX.  lib.  v.). 

1235  Robert  Grostete  (Capito)  Bishop  of  Lincoln. 


The  Stedingians  inveigh  against  the  clergy. 


1236  The  emperor  and  the  Lombard  States  at  war. 


1237  The  Livonian  knights  (Gladiferi)  unite  with  those  of 
the  Teutonic  order  for  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  Prussia. 


1238  The  Kingdom  of  Granada  founded. 


The  Carmelite  order  of  monks    (founded  in   1156)  ex- 
tends into  the  West. 
Raymond  de  Penna  forti,  General  of  the  Dominicans. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     269 

The  pope  still  aggrieved  by  the  efforts  of  the  emperor 
to  establish  his  power  in  Italy.     He  takes  part  with  the 

1239  Lombard  cities  against  the  emperor.  At  length  (1239), 
the  pope  excommunicates  Frederic  "  on  account  of  his 
manifold  oppressions  of  the  Church,"  threatening  further 
proceedings  against  him  as  "  one  suspected  of  heresy." 
Frederic  appeals  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council. 
The  pope  openly  accuses  the  emperor  as  an  unbeliever. 

Sancho  II.  King  of  Portugal,  involved  in  disputes  with 
the  bishops  and  the  pope.  (Deposed  by  the  pope  in 
1245.) 

1241  The  emperor  forcibly  prevents  the  assembling  of  a 
general  council  at  Rome,  convened  by  Gregory. 


The  Moguls  penetrate  as  far  as  Silesia  and  Hungary. 


1248  The  pope  divides  Prussia  into  four  bishoprics. 


Continual  troubles  and  anarchy  in  Germany. 


1244  Fruitless  attempt  at  establishing  a  good  understanding 
between  the  emperor  and  the  pope.  Mutual  jealousy  and 
distrust.  The  pope  refuses  absolution  to  the  emperor, 
flees  to  Lyons,  pronounces  a  fresh  sentence  of  excommu- 
nication, and  cites  the  emperor  before  a  general  council 
at  Lyons,  1245.  The  emperor  refuses  to  appear  before 
such  a  judge.  Council  pronounces  sentence  of  excommuni- 
cation and  deposition. 

1245  The  pope  sends  missionaries  to  the  Moguls;  but  with 
little  effect. 

The  Khan  demands  submission.  (Kajuk,  Great  Khan 
of  the  Moguls,  is  now  formidable  in  Europe.) 

The  emperor  writes  against  the  pope,  and  calls  upon 
princes  to  throw  off  his  unapostolic  yoke.  The  pope  con- 
tinues to  demand  absolute  submission.  The  contest  lasts 
during  the  life  of  Frederic. 


The  Carmelites  a  mendicant  order. 


2?°  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 

The  pope  authorises  the  Franciscans  (Friars  Minor)  to 
possess  houses,  furniture,  books,  &c.  The  more  lax  party 
adopt  this  permission,  regarding  these  things  as  their  own 
for  use,  but  the  pope's  as  to  property.  The  advocates  for 
the  strict  observance  of  the  rule  and  the  vow  of  poverty 
contend  against  these  proceedings.  Under  the  name  of 
"  zealous,"  or  "  spiritual,"  they  kept  up  a  violent  contest  on 
this  subject  throughout  the  century. 


1245 


1248 
1249 


Bonaventura  studies  at  Paris. 
T  Alexander  of  Hales,    Irrefragable  Doctor  (Sum  of 
Theology). 

University  founded  at  Rome. 
Thomas  Aquinas  studies  at  Paris,   and  afterwards  at 
Cologne,  under  Albert  the  Great. 


The  Berghards,  &c.  amalgamate  with  the  Tertiary  order 
of  Franciscans. 


The  Seventh  Crusade 
(under  St.  Louis  of  France). 
Another  mission  to  the  Moguls,  sent  by  Louis  IX.  of 
France. 

Capture  of  Damietta  by  the  Crusaders.  St.  Louis  taken 
prisoner,  and  Damietta  lost  again.  (After  the  release  of 
the  king  in  1250,  four  years  spent  before  Acre  to  no 
purpose.) 

#  University  College,  Oxford,  founded. 


-#■  Edmund,  late  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  canonized. 

About  this  time,  a  forgery,  entitled  "  The  Eternal 
Gospel,"  composed  probably  about  the  beginning  of  the 
century,  was  republished,  with  an  Introduction :  filled 
with  prophecies  in  favour  of  St.  Francis  and  his  friars. 
1250  *  Some  blood,  said  to  have  been  part  of  that  shed  by 
our  Saviour  on  the  cross,  conveyed,  with  great  pomp,  to 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Conrad  IV.  Emperor  of  Germany. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     27] 

Origin  of  the  Hanseatic  League. 


1250 


1251 


1253 


1254 


1255 
1256 


College  of  the  Sorbonne  at  Paris  founded,  by  Robert, 
Chaplain  to  Louis  IX.  (Collegium,  or  Congregatio,  pau- 
perum  magistrorum  studentium  in  theologica  facultate.) 


Mangu,  Great  Khan  of  the  Moguls. 

Ruysbrock  conducts  a  mission  to  Mangu.  The  Khan 
adopted  the  Christian  name  in  1253 ;  but  the  religion  of 
the  Gospel  did  not  make  any  real  progress  among  his 
people. 

Grostete  resists  the  papal  appointment  of  a  youth  as 
canon  in  his  cathedral.  In  a  letter,  he  protests  against 
the  undue  authority  and  interference  of  the  pope. 


t  Grostete. 
Thomas  Aquinas  teaches  at  Paris. 
Bonaventura  promotes  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 
Nicephorus  Blemmidas,  fl. 


Great  Interregnum  of  the  Western  Empire. 
The  Knights  of  St.  Lazarus  of  Jerusalem  come  into 
France. 

Egypt  under  the  Mamelukes  (1250—1282). 
Theodore  Lascaris  II.  Greek  Emperor. 
Enfranchisement  of  Serfs  in  Italy. 


The  struggle  between  the  Popes  and  the  House  of 
Hohenstaufen  continues  during  the  pontificates  of  the 
three  successors  of  Innocent,  —  Alexander,  Urban,  and 
Clement. 


William  de  St.  Amour,  defending  the  University  of 
Paris  against  the  Dominicans,  publishes  his  book, 
"  Concerning  the  Perils  of  the  Last  Times  ;"  in  which 
he  inveighs  not  only  against  the  Mendicants,  but  against 
many  superstitions  and  corruptions  of  the  Church,  not 
sparing  the  pope  himself.     The  pope  afterwards  decided 


272  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 

in  favour  of  the  Friars,  and  William  was  obliged  to  seek 
safety  in  flight. 

1256        The  Hermits   of  Jugustin,    a    mendicant    order    (the 
union  of  several   societies  of  hermits  in  Italy,   under  a 
rule  said  to  have  been  derived  from  Augustin). 
Bonaventura,  General  of  his  order  (Franciscans). 


f  Vincent  of  Beauvais  (Speculum  Majus). 

1257  Arsenius  Autorianus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
(Nomocanon). 

*  University  of  Cambridge  founded. 

1258  After  the  capture  of  Bagdad,  the  Moguls  showed 
favour  to  theNestorian  Christians.  Subsequently,  Christi- 
anity and  Mohammedanism  appeared  to  prevail  by  turns ; 
until,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  Mo- 
hammedanism obtained  the  upper  hand  decidedly,  and 
thenceforward  the  Christians  were  violently  persecuted. 


Manfred,  King  of  Sicily. 

1259  Theodore  Lascaris  IV.  Greek  Emperor. 

1 260  End  of  the  Caliphate  of  Bagdad, 


Thomas  Aquinas  repairs  to  Italy. 
f  William  of  St.  Amour, 
(al.  1222.)     University  of  Padua  founded. 
The  Teaching  of  the  Church. 
The  clergy  of  this  period,  for  the  most  part  ignorant 
themselves,  were  incompetent  to  teach.     They  offered  to 
the  people  little  more  than  dead  forms  and  a  dead  lan- 
guage.  But  some  individuals  laboured  for  their  improve- 
ment.   Guibert,  an  abbot  of  Nogent  (|  1124),  published 
a  treatise  on   preaching   (Liber  quo  Ordine  Sermo  fieri 
debeat).     Humbert  of  Romans,  General  of  the  Domini- 
cans ("j*  1277),  wrote  a  work  in  two  books  (De  Eruditione 
Praedicatorum).     Bonaventura  (f  1274)  compiled  an  in- 
struction   for    preaching,     entitled    Biblia    Pauper  um. 
Thomas  Aquinas   (|  1274)  promoted  a  simple  and  scrip- 
tural  style  of  preaching  by  his  own  example.    Thomas 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     273 

Aquinas    and    Berthold   of  Ratisbon    preached    in    the 
vernacular  tongue. 

Translations  of  Scripture  were  made  during  the 
twelfth  century,  especially  in  the  South  of  France.  But 
the  reading  of  Scripture  was  generally  discountenanced ; 
and  hence  Christian  knowledge  was  at  a  low  ebb. 


Communion  in  one  kind. 

Thomas  Aquinas,  Bonaventura,  and  other  Schoolmen, 
defend  the  withdrawal  of  the  cup  from  the  laity  in  the 
Lord's  supper.  In  the  course  of  this  century  their  argu- 
ments prevailed,  and  the  practice  of  administering  the 
communion  in  one  kind  became  general,  founded  on 
a  superstitious  regard  for  the  mere  elements  used  in  the 
Lord's  supper,  and  on  a  false  opinion  of  the  superior 
sanctity  of  the  clerical  order. 

N.B.  Popes  Leo  the  Great  and  Gelasius  had  de- 
nounced the  act  of  receiving  the  sacrament  under  only 
one  kind  as  sacrilegious. 


The  sect  of  Apostolicals  in  Italy,  with  Gerard  Segarelli 
at  their  head;  denouncing,  in  the  rising  spirit  of  the 
times,  the  luxury  and  indolence  of  the  clergy. 


Contest  between  the  Dominicans  and  the  University  of 
Paris  decided  by  the  pope  in  favour  of  the  former, 


Michael  Paljeologus,  Greek  Emperor, 
retakes  Constantinople. 
End  of  the  Latin  Empire  in  the  East. 
The  Genoese,  in  league  with  the  Greek  emperors,  at 
war  with  Venice. 


j  Hugh  of  St.  Cher  (Concordance  of  the  Bible). 

(al.  1272.)  Thomas  of  Cantinpre  (Bonum  Universale, 
seu  De  Apibus). 

During  this  period,  the  attention  bestowed  upon  Holy 
Scripture  consisted  in  —  the  revision  of  Latin  manu- 
scripts, and   the  compilation  of  Concordances  (Anton  of 

T 


274  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       {Fifth 

Padua,  and  Hugh  of  St.  Cher),  and  Expositions  (chiefly 
mystical,  exhibiting  great  want  of  critical  or  philological 
science). 


1264 


1265 


1268 


Festum  Corporis  Domini, 
established  by  Urban,  for  the  whole  church  (in  favour  of 
the  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation,  and  the  adoration  of 
the  Host).  But  the  observance  of  this  festival  did  not 
become  general,  until  the  order  was  repeated  by  Cle- 
ment V.  in  1311,  with  effect. 

Adoration  of  the  consecrated  bread  of  the  eucharist  be- 
comes more  and  more  general ;  the  withdrawal  of  the  cup 
from  the  laity  takes  its  rise. 

The  doctrine  of  human  merit,  and  of  supererogatory 
works,  ivas  now  carried  to  an  extreme  height.  It  produced 
most  pernicious  effects  upon  the  whole  body  of  received 
theology, 

*  The  Commons  admitted  into  the  English  Parliament 
for  the  first  time. 

Charles  1,  of  Anjou  conquers  the  Sicilies. 

to  1268.  Caesarea,  Jaffa,  and  Antioch,  taken  from  the 
Christians  by  the  Mameluke  Sultans  of  Egypt. 


Reservation  of  benefices  becoming  vacant  by  the  in- 
cumbents dying  at  Rome,  introduced  this  year  by 
Clement  IV. 

"  This  first  reservation  was  the  forerunner  of  several 
others,  such  as  the  reservation  of  all  cathedral  churches, 
abbeys,  and  priories ;  as  also  of  the  highest  dignities  in 
cathedral  and  collegiate  churches;  and  of  all  collective 
benefices,  becoming  vacant  during  eight  months  in  the 
year,  called  the  pope's  months,  so  that  only  four  months 
remained  for  the  ordinary  collators ;  and  these,  too,  en- 
croached upon  by  mandates,  expectatives,  and  reserva- 
tions."    (Koch.) 

Conradin,  the  last  member  of  the   House  of  Hohen- 
staufen,  made  prisoner  and  beheaded. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     275 


1268 


1270 


1273 


1^74 


The  contest  between  the  Pope  and  the  House  of  Hohen- 
staufen  terminates  in  favour  of  the  Pope. 

The  Papal  Dominion  at  its  utmost  height. 

About  this  time,  the  petty  princes  of  Europe  continu- 
ally make  concessions  and  donations  to  the  Roman  See. 

to  1271.  Dissensions  among  the  cardinals  concerning 
the  election  of  a  pope. 


Eighth  (and  last)  Crusade 
under  Louis  of  France,   and   Prince   (afterwards  King) 
Edward  of  England.     Edward  rescues  Acre,  and  obtains 
a  ten  years'  truce  before  his  return. 

Philip  III.  (the  Bold)  King  of  France. 
Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  Emperor  of  Germany, 

(first  of  the  Austrian  line). 
Rodolph  renews  the  oath  of  Otho  IV.  and  Frederic  II. 
to  the  Pope. 

*  Edward  I.  King  of  England. 


The  Greek  Emperor,  Michael  Palseologus,  endeavours 
to  put  an  end  to  the  controversy  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches.  But  in  this  attempt  he  is  op- 
posed by  Joseph,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  is  not 
disposed  to  make  any  concessions  concerning  the  points 
in  debate.  Joseph  abdicates  ;  and  John  Beccus  or  Veccus, 
who  had  formerly  opposed  the  union,  but  had  suddenly 
changed  his  views  on  the  subject,  is  made  patriarch  in  his 
room.  ___^ 

At  the  General  Council  of  Lyons,  fresh  laws  are  passed 
concerning  the  election  of  popes.  Conclave  of  cardinals 
established,  or  the  rule  relating  to  the  strict  confinement 
of  the  members  of  the  college  during  their  deliberations, 
until  the  election. 

At  this  council,  the  ambassadors  of  the  Greek  emperor 
recognise  the  primacy  of  the  pope,  and  subscribe  a  con- 
fession of  faith,  on  condition  that  the  Greek  Church 
should  retain  its  old  Niceno-Constantinopolitan  Creed, 
and   certain  peculiar  rites.     But   this   union   of  the  two 

T  2 


276  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 


1274 


churches  —  the   work  of  the  Byzantine  court  —  was  only 
temporary. 

Orders  of  Mendicants. — By  the  Council  of  Lyons,  the 
number  of  mendicant  orders  is  restricted  to  four,  namely, 
Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Hermits  of 
Augustin.  The  number  of  orders  had  amounted  to  no 
less  than  twenty-three. 


The  ardour  of  Europe  in  the  cause  ofilie  Crusades  subsides. 
The  pope  fails  in  an  attempt  to  procure  such  an  expedition. 


f  Thomas  Aquinas  (Angelic  Doctor),  and  Bonaventura 
(Seraphic  Doctor). 

The  latter  had  contributed  greatly  to  the  union  of  the 
scholastic  and  mystic  theology. 


1275  Missionaries  sent  to  China,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Khan,  by  whom  they  are  favourably  received.  (Marco 
Polo  accompanies  the  missionaries.)  The  Khan  died  in 
1293,  without  making  profession  of  Christianity. 


Penance  and  Indulgence. 
Alexander  of  Hales,  Albert,  and  Thomas  Aquinas, 
added  to  the  errors  already  preached  by  Peter  Lombard. 
They  established  the  doctrine  of  a  Thesaurus  supereroo-a- 
tionis  perfectorum,  a  treasure  of  the  supererogatory  merits 
of  Christ  and  the  saints,  the  property  of  the  Church,  from 
which  she  could  appropriate  to  any  of  her  members  so 
much  as  might  serve  as  a  substitute  or  satisfaction  for 
punishment  deserved.  According  to  these  Schoolmen, 
this  indulgence  was  not  equivalent  to  the  forgiveness  of 
sin,  but  related  only  to  penalties  which  it  was  in  the  power 
of  the  Church  to  inflict,  or  to  the  sufferings  of  purgatory ; 
and  further,  such  indulgence  was  said  to  benefit  none  but 
those  who  exercised  hearty  repentance,  and  were  united 
to  Christ  and  the  Church  by  a  true  faith.  But  this  dis- 
tinction and  these  necessary  conditions  were  usually  kept 
out  of  sight  by  those  who  were  concerned  in  the  sale  of 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     277 

Indulgences;  and  the  people  ignorantly  supposed  that 
they  could  purchase  the  remission  of  all  their  sins  by  the 
performance  of  certain  services,  or  the  payment  of  money. 


1276 


1278 
1279 


1280 


Kingdom  of  Arragon. 


The  cardinals  obtain   a  suspension  of  the  rule  of  con- 
clave. 

Durandi  Rationale  Divin.  Officiorum. 


The  emperor  renounces  all  his  rights  in  the  Exarchate. 


*  In  England  the  statute  of  mortmain  makes  the  king's 
consent  necessary  for  transfer  of  property  to  the  Church. 


Bull  of  Nicholas  III.  (Exiit  qui  seminat),  intended  as  a 
means  of  reconciling  the  conflicting  parties  of  Friars 
Minor.  It  allowed  "  the  use  "  of  certain  things ;  and  so 
did  not  satisfy  the  Zealous  or  Spiritual  party,  who  not  only 
rejected  the  papal  interpretation  of  their  rule,  but  set 
themselves  in  more  decided  opposition  to  the  interests  of 
the  See  of  Rome. 


Segarelli,  Leader  of  the  Apostolicals,  taken  into  custody 
by  the  bishop  of  Parma. 


I    Albert  the  Great,  a  celebrated  school 

3  282 


man. 


Massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily  (Sicilian  Vespers). 

Peter  III.  King  of  Arragon  and  Sicily. 

Christians  persecuted  in  Persia,  by  the  Mohammedans. 


T  Georgius  Acropolita  Logothetes,  continuator  of  By- 
zantine history. 

The  more  strict  Franciscans  (Spiritual)  may  now  be  re- 
garded as 
an  influential  party  in  opposition  to  the  dominant  church. 

t  3 


278  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 

The  Greek  Emperor  Andronicus  I.  annuls  the  union 
with  the  Latin  Church,  and  restores  ecclesiastical  matters 
to  their  former  condition.  Veccus  is  deposed  and  perse- 
cuted, and  Joseph  is  again  made  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople. The  Latinising  clergy  are  unpopular;  and  thus 
the  quarrel  between  the  churches  of  the  East  and  West  is  re- 
vived. 


1283     Andronicus  IL  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 
1285  Philip  IV.  (the  Fair)  King  of  France. 


j"  Raymond  Martin. 


1286        t  Gregory  Abulpharagius,  Bishop  of  Aleppo,  and  Pri- 
mate of  the  Jacobites  (Universal  History). 


Segarelli  released.  But  the  sect  of  Apostolicals,  not 
being  a  privileged  order,  prohibited  by  the  pope  (Hono- 
rius  IV.)  

Frequent  misunderstandings  and  quarrels  between  the  pope 
and  European  princes. 

State  of  Theology. 

As  the  source  or  foundation  of  Christian  doctrine,  some 
theologians  of  this  age  adhered  to  the  Scriptures  and  the 
Fathers  (tradition)  ;  while  others  (the  Schoolmen)  super- 
added the  Aristotelian  philosophy  as  a  distinct  source  of 
knowledge. 

The  Schoolmen  employed  themselves  chiefly  in  com- 
menting upon  the  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard. 

Undue  deference  to  human  authority  acting  as  a  check 
upon  liberty  of  thought  in  matters  of  religious  belief,  it 
followed  that  the  more  vigorous  minds  of  this  age  em- 
ployed their  energies  in  inventing  distinctions,  framing 
and  answering  captious  questions,  or  other  such  exercises 
of  reasoning  or  ingenuity.  Hence  many  unprofitable 
questions  and  speculations  were  introduced  into  the  pre- 
valent theology,  in  addition  to  the  various  errors  with 
which  it  was  already  overcharged. 


Period,)  TO    THE    BEGINNING    OF    THE    REFORMATION.       279 

1289;  John  de  Monte  Corvino,  a  Franciscan,  sent  by  the 
pope  as  a  missionary  to  the  Chinese  Mogul  Empire.  He 
laboured  in  Pekin  wjth  industry  and  apparent  success, 
during  eleven  years,  alone.  About  6000  Moguls  bap- 
tized.    New  Testament  and  Psalms  translated  into  their 


language. 


1290 


The  society  of  Apostolicals  condemned  as  heretical. 
i  Members  of  the  society  persecuted.  SegarelH  inveighs 
I  against  the  dominant  church  as  Spiritual  Babylon. 


1291 


University  of  Lisbon  founded. 


The  Genoese  triumph  over  the  Republic  of  Pisa. 

End  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 
Capture  of  Acre    by  the  Mamelukes.     The  Knights 
Templars  and  Hospitalers  escape  to  Cyprus.     Christian 
dominion  in  Palestine  at  an  end. 

Adolphus  of  Nassau,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
1292        Masoud,    last  Sultan  of   Iconium,    conquered  by  the 
I  Moguls. 


1294 


*  Edward  I.  of  England  demands  one  half  of  the 
revenues  of  the  Church  within  his  dominions.  The  clergy 
make  some  resistance,  but  are  compelled  to  submit. 


Beghards  and  Beguines  condemned  and  persecuted,. 


The  cardinals,  compelled  to  proceed  to  an  election, 
hastily  nominate  a  recluse,  under  the  title  of  Celestin  V. 
The  Cardinal  Benedict  Cajetan,  having  persuaded  him  to 
declare  the  abdication  of  a  pope  valid,  and  then  to  abdi- 
cate, procures  his  own  election  under  the  title  of  Boni- 
face VI  i  I. 


Friars  Minor.  Celestin  permits  the  Spiritual  party  to 
form  themselves  into  a  separate  society  (order  of  Celes- 
tines).  But  this  act  was  annulled  by  Boniface;  and  the 
Spiritual  henceforward  suffer  great  persecution. 


t4 


280  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.        {Fifth 

1294  t  Alan  of  Lille  (Universal  Doctor). 

*  f  Roger  Bacon.  As  a  biblical  divine,  he  contended 
for  the  authority  of  Scripture  as  the  fountain  of  truth, 
in  opposition  to  all  other  authorities.  Hugh  of  St.  Cher 
(f  1*260)  may  be  placed  in  the  same  class. 


ll296  The  pope  (Boniface)  quarrels  with  Philip  the  Fair,  of 
France.  Philip  having  taxed  the  clergy  of  his  kingdom 
to  defray  his  military  expenses,  Boniface  issued  a  bull  of 
excommunication  against  all  laymen  who  should  demand 
tribute  from  the  clergy,  and  all  spiritual  persons  who 
should  pay  tribute  to  laymen.  Negotiations  were  begun, 
but  broken  off.  Afterwards  the  pope  wrote  to  the  em- 
peror in  the  following  terms :  —  "  Scire  te  volumus,  quod 

in  spiritualibus  et  temporalibus  nobis  subes Aliud 

credentes  haereticos  reputamus.',     To  which  the  emperor 
replied,  —  "  Sciat  maxima  tua  fatuitas,  in  temporalibus 

nos  alicui   non    subesse Secus    credentes    fatuos    et 

dementes  reputamus." 

*  Winchelsey,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  obtains  a 
bull,  forbidding  the  levying  and  payment  of  taxes,  in  the 
case  of  ecclesiastics,  without  permission  from  Rome. 

1297  Canonization  of  Louis  JX. 


1298  Albert  of  Austria,  Emperor  of  Germany. 


(al.  1284.)  John  Beccus  (Veccus). 
University  of  Montpellier  founded. 


1299      The  Ottoman  Empire  founded  by  Othmjn. 


During  this  century,  some  of  the  errors  of  the  domi- 
nant church  were  sanctioned  by  the  decrees  of  councils, 
e.g.  Transubstantiation ;  others  were  systematized  by  the 
diligence  of  Schoolmen,  e.  g.  the  doctrine  of  Indulgence. 

But  testimonies  to  a  purer  system  of  Christian  doctrine 
were  given  in  the  course  of  the  century  by  the  School- 
men in  various  parts  of  their  writings,  as  well  as  (more 
decidedly)    by   those   witnesses  of  truth  who  were  con- 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.       281 

demned  by  the   dominant  party  as  heretics)  e.  g.  Wal- 
denses. 

Large  numbers  of  persons  ivere  punished  as  heretics  during 
this  century  ;  but  the  majority  of  these  appear  to  have  taught 
a  purer  faith  than  that  which  prevailed  within  the  borders  of 
the  dominant  church. 


1300 


The  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary  was  carried  to  a  great 
height  during  this  century;  a  festival  was  appointed  in 
honour  of  her  birth;  and  the  use  of  St.  Mary's  Psalter 
became  general. 

The  house  of  the  Virgin,  said  to  have  been  miraculously 
transported  from  Nazareth  to  Dalmatia,  and  then  to 
Loretto,  during  this  period.  (Miracle  not  related  until 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.) 


Controversy  between  Thomists  and  Scotists. 
The  followers  of  Thomas  Aquinas  (Thomists)  and 
those  of  Duns  Scotus  (Scotists)  differed  with  each  other  on 
the  following  matters  :  —  In  philosophy,  the  Thomists  took 
the  Aristotelian  view  of  universals,  while  the  Scotists  de- 
fended the  system  of  Plato.  In  theology,  the  Thomists 
adopted  the  opinions  of  Augustin  concerning  sin  and 
grace:  but  the  Scotists  were  Semipelagians,  inclining 
strongly  to  Pelagianism.  The  Thomists  attributed  an 
infinite  value  to  the  merits  of  Christ  in  virtue  of  his 
nature  as  God-man ;  the  Scotists  supposed  them  to  have 
possessed  their  value  and  efficacy  in  consequence  of  the 
divine  appointment  or  decree.  The  Thomists  denied, 
the  Scotists  assumed,  the  doctrine  of  the  immaculate  con- 
ception of  the  Virgin  Mary. 


The  First  Jubilee, 
or  solemn  centennial  visit  to  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  at 
Rome  for  obtaining  a  plenary  indulgence,  proclaimed  by 
Boniface  VIII. 


Lollards.     About   this   time  a  society  was  formed   in 
Antwerp,  chiefly  for  visiting  and  relieving  the  sick.     The 


282  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY    VII.         (Fifth 

members  of  this  society  were  called  Lollards  (from  lollen, 
to  sing). 

1300  Segarelli,  Leader  of  the  Apostolicals,  burnt  at  Parma. — 
Doicino  (Dulcinus)  succeeds  him  as  head  of  the  party: 
he  prophesies  the  overthrow  of  the  Church  in  1363,  and 
returns  to  Dalmatia. 


Universities  of  Lyons  and  Lerida  founded. 

1302  Philip  having  refused  to  obey  a  summons  from  the 
pope,  Boniface  issues  a  bull  (Unam  Sanctam)  declaring 
the  doctrine  of  the  sovereign  and  unlimited  power  of  the 
pope  to  be  a  necessary  article  of  faith,  and  condemning, 
as  a  Manichaean  heresy,  the  recognition  of  two  independent 
powers,  the  spiritual  and  the  temporal  (as  of  two  prin- 
ciples, good  and  bad). 

1303  Boniface  excommunicates  Philip.  The  king  and  his 
people  appeal  to  a  general  council,  and  institute  charges 
against  the  character  and  orthodoxy  of  the  pope.  Boni- 
face flies  to  Anagni ;  is  made  prisoner  by  William  de 
Nogaret;  afterwards  released  by  the  people.  He  died  at 
Rome  the  same  year, 


First  assembly  of  the  States-general  in  France,  com- 
posed of  the  three  orders  of  the  kingdom. 


University  of  Avignon  founded. 
1304         $  Richard  Middleton  (Solid  and  Copious  Doctor), 


Doicino  returns  to  Italy.  At  the  head  of  many  thou- 
sand followers,  he  takes  possession  of  a  mountain,  from 
which  he  makes  predatory  incursions  upon  the  neighbour- 
hood. In  1306  he  removed  to  another  position,  where 
his  party  for  some  time  resisted  the  efforts  of  a  crusade 
which  had  been  sent  against  it;  but  was  at  length  (1307) 
compelled  to  yield.     Doicino  put  to  death, 

Benedict,  the  next  pope,  seeks  to  make  peace  with 
France;  but  his  plans  are  frustrated  by  death.  Two 
parties  (Italian  and  French)  among  the  cardinals.  They 
agree  upon  a  mode  of  election,  after  the  lapse  of  nine 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     283 

months.     Clement  V.  elected  (1305)  ;  in  the  interests  of 
France. 


1307 


1308 


The  Knights  Templar,  who  had  acquired  great  wealth 
and  many  privileges,  had  become  obnoxious  to  Philip  of 
France,  and  their  possessions  were  an  object  of  his  cupi- 
dity. Many  charges  of  impiety,  blasphemy,  and  crime, 
were  alleged  against  them ;  apparently  not  without  some 
foundation. 


*  Edward  II.  King  of  England. 
*  In  England,  the  civil  power  continues  to  gain  ground 
against  ecclesiastical  influence  and  usurpation. 


The  pope  appoints  seven  missionaries  (consecrated 
bishops)  as  assistants  to  John  de  Monte  Corvino,  who  is 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Cambalu  (Pekin),  and  continues 
to  labour  for  the  conversion  of  the  Moguls  until  his 
death. 

Knights  Templar  in  France  seized  and  imprisoned  by 
order  of  Philip,  who  sought  the  destruction  of  their  order. 
General  examination,  and  trials,  with  the  forced  con- 
currence of  the  pope. 


University  of  Perugia  founded. 
Pachymeres,  Byzantine  historian,  fl. 
*    J  Duns  Scotus. 
University  of  Coimbra  founded. 
Elements   of  decay   in  the  scholastic  theology  become  ap- 
parent; Schoolmen,  content  to  adopt,  without  examination, 
the  system  of  either  Scotists  or  Thomists,  Nominalists  or 
Realists,  employ  their  dialectic  skill  in  fruitless  and  ridi- 
culous  subtleties.       They   support   the  existing  Church 
system,  without  respect  for  modern   improvements,    and 
the  more  enlightened  spirit  of  the  times. 


Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Swiss  Cantons  throw  off  the  Austrian  yoke. 


284  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORV  VII.       (Fifth 

1308  Clement  removes  the  Seat  of  the  Papacy  to 

Avignon. 

This  removal  tends  greatly  to  weaken  the  power  of  the 
popes ;  first,  by  the  loss  of  the  historical  reminiscences 
connected  with  Rome,  upon  which  certain  pretensions  had 
been  founded;  secondly,  as  involving  dependence  upon 
France  ;  and  thirdly,  as  favouring  an  increase  of  profligacy 
in  the  papal  court. 

1309  The  Diet  of  Spires,  held  this  year,  was  the  first  in  which 
the  cities  of  the  empire  appeared  as  a  third  order. 

The  Knights  of  St.  John  (Hospitalers)  settle  in  Rhodes. 


Philip  had  stipulated  that  Clement  should  procure  the 
condemnation  of  the  late  pope.  Articles  of  accusation 
against  him  were  now  exhibited  before  Clement ;  but,  in 
deference  to  public  opinion,  the  matter  was  deferred  until 
the  next  general  council. 

Precursors  of  the  Reformation. 
During  this  century  the  Gospel  was  preached  in  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  purity  by  the  Waldenses  scattered  in 
Bohemia. 

1310  Philip  causes  to  be  burnt  at  Paris,  in  one  day,  fifty-four 
Templars,  who  were  about  to  defend  their  order  before  the 
papal  commissioners. 

1311  The  pope  formally  suppresses  the  order  of  Knights 
Templar,  in  the  Council  of  Vienne. 

The  council  refuses  to  condemn  Boniface,  the  late  pope. 
It  makes  some  ineffectual  provisions  for  the  reformation  of 
the  Church. 


Observance  of  the  Festival  of  Corpus  Domini  strictly 
enjoined  by  the  Council  of  Vienne. 


University  of  Orleans  founded. 


Period.)  TO  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     285 

Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit  in  Italy  ;  a  sect 
distinguished  (for  the  most  part)  by  the  union  of  true  re- 
ligion with  fanaticism.     Persecuted  by  the  Inquisition. 

Adamites,  an  ignorant  and  deluded  class  of  Brethren  of 
the  Free  Spirit,  in  Austria. 


In  China  and  Tartary  the  Gospel  was  now  propagated 
with  some  degree  of  success  by  missionaries  (Franciscans) 
sent  by  the  pope,  and  by  the  Nestorians.  But  the  recep- 
tion of  the  Gospel  by  the  people  of  those  parts  was  only 
partial  and  temporary. 


Louis  X.  King  of  France. 
Louis  IV.  of  Bavaria  and  Frederic  of  Austria  contend  for 
the  empire,  after  the  death  of  Henry  IV.  ivho  had  been  killed 
by  poison. 

After  the  death  of  Clement,  the  French  and  Italian 
parties  among  the  cardinals  contest  the  election  of  a  pope 
during  the  space  of  two  years.  The  French  party  at 
length  procure  the  election  of  John  XXII. 


Many  Templars  had  been  put  to  death,  protesting  their 
innocence  of  crimes  alleged  against  them.  Such  was  the 
fate  of  their  last  grand  master  this  year.  Only  a  small 
remnant  of  the  order  left. 


"f   Raymond  Lully 


Philip  V.  King  of  France. 
Matthew  Visconti,  Duke  of  Milan. 


The  pope  claims  the  right  of  deciding  the  contest  be- 
tween Louis  of  Bavaria  and  Frederic  of  Austria,  for  the 
imperial  crown  ;  but  forbears  to  pronounce  a  decision. 


Efforts  are  made  to  effect  an  union  between  the  Arme- 


286  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF   GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 

nian   and  Latin    Churches.       (Lower  Armenia   united, 
1323.)  

1320        The  pope  (John  XXII.)  causes  the  Festival  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  to  be  generally  observed. 


f  Antony  Andreas  (Doctor  Dulcifluus] 


1322  The  pope  exasperates  the  strict  Franciscans  by  deciding 
against  their  proposition,  that  our  Lord  and  his  Apostles 
possessed  no  temporal  property. 

Contest  of  the  Pope  with  Louis  of  Bavaria. 

1323  The  pope  refusing  to  acknowledge  Louis  as  emperor, 
the  latter  appeals  to  a  general  council. 


|  Hervseus  Natalis,  General  of  the  Dominicans. 


1324  The  Pope  excommunicates  Louis.  The  more  strict 
Franciscans,  offended  with  the  pope  on  account  of  the  part 
he  had  taken  with  reference  to  the  controversies  of  their 
order,  side  with  the  emperor.  William  Occam  writes  in 
his  defence. 

1325  t  Francis  Mayronius  (Doctor  Illuminatus  et  Acutus ; 
Magister  Abstraction  urn). 

About  this  time  several  individual  Schoolmen,  adhering 
to  the  scholastic  system  in  general,  began  to  differ  from 
their  brethren  in  their  mode  of  treating  questions  of  theo- 
logy. Such  were  Nicolas  de  Lyra,  Brad  war  dine,  and 
Raymond  of  Toulouse. 


Ave  Maria  to  be  repeated  three  times  a  day. 


1327  Louis  of  Bavaria,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

#  Edward  III.  King  of  England. 


Louis,  having  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  at  Rome, 
procures  the  deposition  of  the  pope,  and  the  nomination 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     287 

of  Nicholas  V.  as  his  successor.     But  he  is  unable  to  per- 
severe in  a  successful  opposition  to  John. 

Some  partisans  of  the  emperor  (Marsilius  of  Padua, 
John  of  Janduno)  maintain  in  their  writings  the  bold, 
and  at  this  time  strange,  positions,  that  the  Church  pos- 
sesses only  a  spiritual  authority ;  that  the  pope  can  claim 
no  higher  dignity  than  other  bishops ;  and  that  the 
primacy  of  the  bishop  of  Rome  cannot  be  derived  from 
St.  Peter,  the  fact  of  whose  residence  at  Rome  is  doubtful. 
These  assertions  contrary  to  public  opinion. 


1328 


1329 
1330 


1332 


1333 


Philip  VI.  of  Valois,  King  of  France. 
Andronicus  III.  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 


The  emperor  quits  Italy. 
Nicholas  V.  obliged  to  submit  to  John,  and  implore  his 
pardon. 

The  pope  (John  XXII.)  in  danger  of  being  condemned 
as  a  heretic,  for  maintaining  that  the  souls  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  all  saints  do  not  attain  to  the  beatific  vision 
until  the  last  day.  He  retracted  his  opinion  shortly  before 
his  death. 


f  Theodore  Metochita. 


Unable  to  resist  the  influence  of  papal  excommuni- 
cation and  opposition,  the  emperor  endeavours  to  bring 
about  an  accommodation  with  the  pope.  The  pope  in- 
sists upon  absolute  submission.  The  emperor  about  to 
abdicate,  when  the  States  of  Germany  resolve  to  appeal  to 
a  general  council. 

f  Nicephorus  Callistus. 

j"  William  Durand  (Doctor  Resolutissimus).  He  pro- 
posed modifications  of  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation. 

The  leading  errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome  were  par- 
tially exposed  during  this  century,  not  only  by  the  Wal- 


288  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         {Fifth 

denses,  but  also  by  various  writers  in  the  course  of  their 
protests  against  practical  abuses. 

Durand  made  some  excellent  remarks  respecting  the 
source  of  religious  knowledge  on  the  grounds  of  Christian 
doctrine.  But  the  scholastic  theology  continues  to  be 
employed  chiefly  in  the  discussion  of  frivolous  or  captious 
questions,  and  in  maintaining  an  undue  deference  to  human 
authority  in  matters  of  belief. 


1334  Flagellants  appear  in  Italy 


1335        The  archbishop  of  Upsal  founds   a  (nominally)  Christ- 
ian Church  in  Lapland. 


1337  (or  soon  after.)  |  Walter  Burleigh  (Doctor  Planus  et  Per- 
spicuus). 

1338  Contests  between  England   and  France,  for  the   French 
crown,  begin.      They  last  during  more  than  a  century. 


Benedict  desires  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  France,  and 
to  come  to  a  good  understanding  with  the  emperor ;  also, 
to  reform  the  corrupt  clergy  and  monks ;  but  he  encoun- 
ters much  opposition,  and  is  unable  to  effect  his  projects. 


1339        Beginning  of  the  struggle  between  the  Houses  of  Co- 
lonna  (imperial)  and  Ursini  (papal)  at  Rome. 


The  Greek  emperors,  from  political  motives,  still  desire 
to  effect  a  reconciliation  with  Rome.  This  year  Barlaam, 
a  Greek  abbot,  negotiates  with  Benedict  at  Avignon,  but 
without  success.  Barlaam  afterwards  conformed  to  the 
Romish  Church. 


Universities  of  Pisa  and  Grenoble  founded. 
1340        T  Nicolas  de  Lyra  (Doctor  Planus  et  Utilis).    Postillse 
Perpetuas,  seu  Brevia  Commentaria  in  Universa  Biblia. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     289 

Nicephoras  Gregoras,  Byzantine  historian,  fl. 
*  Earliest  English  Translations  of  Scripture.    Rollers  {of 
Hampole)  Psalms,  fyc.    » 


1341 


1342 


1343 


Study  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  languages  begins  to  be 
cultivated.  Some  approach  towards  a  critical  interpretation 
of  Scripture. 

Benedict  appointed  a  festival  in  honour  of  the  (fictitious) 
wounds  of  St.  Francis. 

The  pope  soon  ceases  to  interfere  in  the  quarrels  of  the 
Franciscans. 


Monks  of  Mount  Athos  (Quietists)  in  controversy  with 
Barlaam  respecting  the  vision  of  God  and  the  nature  of 
the  divine  light.     Defended  by  Palamas. 

The  Council  of  Constantinople  decides  in  favour  of  the 
Monks  of  Mount  Athos,  and  condemns  the  doctrine  of 
Barlaam. 

Flagellants  again  in  Italy. 
Beghards,  many   of  the   more  strict  Franciscans,  and 
others,  compose  a  motley  union,  under  the  title  of  Fratri- 
celli.     They  are  continually  persecuted  as  heretics.    Great 
numbers  fall  victims  to  the  Inquisition. 


John  Palaiologus,  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 
John  Cantacuzenus  shared  the  throne  from  1347  to  1355. 


Clement  VI.  Pope  ;  entirely  in  the  interests  of  France. 


I*  Peter  Paludan us  (Franciscan). 
I    Michael  Caesenas  (Dominican). 
(These  two  Schoolmen,  Paludanus  and  Caesenas,  were 
antagonists  in  the  controversy  concerning  the  poverty  of 
Christ  and  the  Apostles.) 

University  of  Cracow  founded. 


290  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 

Louis  the  Great,  King  of  Hungary,  compels  large 
numbers  of  the  Cumani  in  Wallachia  to  profess  (R.  C.) 
Christianity.  They  subsequently  conformed  to  the  Greek 
Church. 


1343        *  In  England  a  statute  is  made  against  Provisions. 


Penance  and  Indulgences.  —  The  pope  issues  a  bull  con- 
firming the  doctrine  of  a  treasure  of  supererogatory  merits 
of  the  saints  in  the  keeping  of  the  Church. 


Peter  Aureolus  fl.  (Epitome  of  Scripture). 
Theophanes,  Archbishop  of  Nice,  fl.   (Evidences' 
1346  t  John  Bacon  (Doctor  Resolutus). 

University  of  Heidelberg  founded. 


Battle  of  Cressy. 
Clement  effects  the  deposition  of  Louis  and  the  elec- 
tion of  Charles  IV.  as  Emperor  of  Germany. 


1347     Charles  IV.  of  Luxemburg,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
He  preserves  a  good  understanding  with  Clement  and 
his  successor. 

to  1354.     Democracy  (in  Rome)  under  Rienzi. 


The  Council  of  Constantinople  favours  the  Monks  of 
Mount  Athos. 


t  William  Occam,  a  disciple  of  Duns  Scotus,  after- 
wards a  leader  of  the  Nominalists  (Doctor  Singularis  et 
Venerabilis  Inceptor). 

Controversy  between  Realists  and  Nominalists  revived. 

(William  Occam  and  Durand  (who  died  in  1333)  in- 
clined to  that  doctrine  concerning  the  elements  in  the 
Lord's  supper  which  has  since  been  called  Consubstan- 
tiation.) 

1348  t  Thomas  Bradwardine  (Doctor  Profundus). 

University  of  Prague  founded. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     291 

The  foundation  of  the  University  of  Prague  tended 
greatly  to  support  the  power  of  the  Romish  hierarchy  in 
Bohemia.  The  Church  in  that  country,  having  been 
founded  by  Greeks,  had  long  maintained  a  considerable 
degree  of  independence,  and  had  resisted  many  innova- 
tions on  the  part  of  Rome.  The  new  university  was  in 
the  hands  of  mendicant  friars,  zealous  for  the  Romish 
system. 

Societies  of  Flagellants  spread  rapidly  from  the  North 
of  Germany.  Clement  issues  a  bull  against  them.  Many 
of  their  members  afterwards  unite  with  Beghards  and 
others  in  opposition  to  the  Church  ;  and  hence  they  are 
regarded  as  heretics. 


■o 


John,  King  of  France. 
Continued  war  between  Venice  and  Genoa. 


Persecution  of  Christians  in  Egypt. 


TJte  Second  Jubilee  celebrated  at  Rome ;  Clement  V. 
having  appointed  the  solemnity  to  take  place  every  fifty 
years  instead  of  once  in  a  century. 


Council  of  Constantinople  again  in  favour  of  the  Monks 
of  Mount  Athos. 

Ecclesiastical  abuses  were  now  manifold  and  grievous. 
Such  were  the  following :  —  Exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the 
pope  or  Church  over  the  clergy ;  power  assumed  by  the 
popes  of  granting  provisions  or  expective  graces,  i.e.  of 
appointing  to  benefices  before  they  became  vacant ;  the 
exactions  of  annates  or  first  fruits,  i.  e.  the  first  year's  in- 
come of  a  benefice  after  preferment;  the  taxation  of  the 
clergy  according  to  the  value  of  their  benefices ;  and  the 
collection  of  Peter's  Pence  (in  England)  —  all  so  many 
means  of  enriching  the  Roman  See  to  the  prejudice  of 
states  and  nations.  Mischiefs  connected  with  the  prero- 
gative of  sanctuary.  Luxury  and  vices  of  the  clergy  and 
monks.  Erroneous  doctrines  (especially  relating  to  Indul- 

u  2 


292  FROxM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.      {Fifth 

gences  and  Transubstantiation)  and  superstitious  prac- 
tices ;  with  the  absence  of  due  religious  learning  and 
instruction. 

Monks  and  Friars.  The  old  monastic  orders  were 
now  the  great  advocates  and  patrons  of  ecclesiastical  cor- 
ruptions. The  Dominicans  had  in  their  hands  the  Inqui- 
sition and  the  cure  of  souls  among  the  higher  classes  of 
society,  and  gradually  lost  the  character  of  a  mendicant 
order ;  the  Franciscans  retained  their  original  character, 
but  were  engaged  in  controversies  and  dissensions  among 
themselves. 

Mystics.  About  this  time,  many  individuals,  under  the 
influence  of  religious  sentiment,  oppose  not  only  the  dead 
ceremonial  worship  of  the  Church,  but  the  barren  metaphy- 
sical theology  of  the  schools. 

Such  were  John  Tauler,  a  Dominican,  at  Strasburg, 
tl361;  Henry  Suso,  of  Ulm,  f  1365 ;  John  Ruys- 
brock,  |l381;  Gerard  Groot,  f  1384;  Florentius 
Radewin,  of  Utrecht,  f  1400;  Thomas  a  Kempis, 
"|"  1471.  These  writers  are  usually  denominated  Mystics. 

Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit  throughout  this 
century  in  various  parts  of  Germany ;  persecuted  by  the 
Inquisition. 

1351  The  ceremony  of  bowing  the  head  at  the  mention  of  the 
name  of  Jesus  enjoined  by  the  Council  of  Beziers. 

1352  *  Statute  of  Praemunire. 
Ottomans  establish  themselves  in  Europe. 

1353  Casimir  II.  King  of  Poland. 


f  Nicephorus  Gregoras. 


1354,  Festival  of  the  Spear  and  Nails. 

The  Emperor,  Charles  IV.  made  a  large  collection  of 
relics. 

1355  t  Gregory  Palamas. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     293 

Perpetual  struggles  between  the  secular  clergy  and  the 
mendicant  friars. 


The  Golden  Bull. 

John,  King  of  France,  defeated  and  made  prisoner. 

The  emperor  sometimes  manifests  a  disposition  to  pro- 
tect his  rights  and  those  of  the  empire  against  the  usurped 
authority  of  the  Roman  See  (Golden  Bull);  but  at 
other  times  he  is  more  submissive  towards  the  pretended 
vicar  of  Christ.      Weak  and  vacillating  measures. 


*  John  Wickliffe,  Fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  de- 
nounces the  avarice  of  ecclesiastics  in  a  treatise  entitled, 
"  The  Last  Age  of  the  Church." 


*  Richard  Fitzralph,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  contends 
against  the  mendicant  friars.     He  died  in  1360. 


Rule  of  the  order  of  St.  Brigitta  confirmed  by  Urban. 


Amurath  I.  Turkish  Sultan. 


During  this  centurjr,  the  Church  still  makes  an  indus- 
trious use  of  excommunication  and  indulgence.  The  former 
inspires  awe  ;  the  latter  procures  money. 

Some  individuals,  however,  protest  against  abuses  of 
this  kind. 

*  Wickliffe  takes  part  with  the  University  of  Oxford 
against  the  Mendicants.  A  large  party  in  the  English 
Church  unites  with  him  in  denouncing  ecclesiastical 
abuses. 

John  Milicz,  Archdeacon  of  Prague,  preaches  repent- 
ance and  faith,  in  opposition  to  prevalent  superstition  and 
error.  He  is  to  be  reckoned  amongst  the  Precursors  of 
the  Reformation. 

University  of  Paris  founded. 
f  John  Tauler,  mystic, 
u  3 


294  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 

1363        Bernardo  Visconti,   of  Milan,  offers  resistance  to  the 
pope. 

Petrarch  promotes  the  request  of  the  people  of  Rome 
for  the  return  of  the  papal  court  to  that  city. 


136  i  Charles  V.  the  Wise,  King  of  France. 


1365  Wickliffe. — Disputes  having  arisen  between  the  secular 
clergy  and  Monks  of  Canterbury  Hall,  founded  by  Simon, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  archbishop  decides  against 
the  monks,  and  makes  Wickliffe  warden  of  the  society. 
But,  in  the  following  year  (1366),  the  new  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  favours  the  Monks  of  Canterbury  Hall. 
Wickliffe  and  his  friends  are  expelled.  Wickliffe  appeals 
to  Rome. 


136? 


University  of  Vienna  founded. 


1369 


Urban,  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of  the  Roman 
people,  endeavours  to  fix  his  residence  at  Rome.  But 
only  a  few  cardinals  accompany  him  thither. 

The  Greek  emperor  (John  V.  Palaeologus)  swears 
obedience  to  the  pope  and  conformity  to  the  Church  of 
Rome.  But  his  subjects  persevere  in  opposition.  The 
next  emperor  (Manuel)  wrote  against  the  Latins. 

Milicz,  having  preached  at  Rome,  was  imprisoned,  and 
afterwards  released.  (1369.)  lie  preaches  in  Bohemia 
with  increased  effect.  Under  him  many  students  unite 
in  preparing  themselves  to  preach  the  Gospel.  This 
year  Conrad  Stickna  died,  distinguished  by  his  zealous 
and  powerful  preaching  in  Bohemia,  and  his  castigation 
of  the  corrupt  clergy  and  monks. 


to  1405.  Timour,  or  Tamerlane,  makes  extensive 
conquests  in  the  East,  and  founds  a  new  empire.  — 
Capital,  Samarcand. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Moguls  from  China  destroys  the 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.  295 


1370 


1371 
1872 


1373 


I374 


1375 


infant  church  in  that  country.     The  system  of  Confucius 
prevails. 

Death  of  Casimir  the  Great,  King  of  Poland.  End  of 
the  Piast  dynasty. 

Urban,  yielding  to  the  influence  of  his  court,  returns 
to  Avignon. 

#  The  pope  decides  against  WicklifFe. 

#  WicklifFe  supports  Edward  III.  King  of  England, 
in  discontinuing  the  payment  of  tribute  promised  by  John 
to  the  Roman  See. 

*■  The  English  Parliament  petitions  that  churchmen 
may  not  be  allowed  to  hold  secular  offices. 

*  Wickliffe,  in  favour  with  the  English  court,  created 
Doctor  of  Divinity  in  Oxford. 


Turlupins,  a  deluded  and  degraded  class  of  Brethren 
of  the  Free  Spirit  in  the  Isle  de  France,  exterminated. 


John  Huss  born,  July  6.  at  Hussinetz,  a  village  of  Bo- 
hemia. 

T  Brigitta. 
#  Winchester  College  founded. 


*  Wickliffe  appointed  one  of  seven  ambassadors  to  confer 
with  papal  commissioners  concerning  certain  grievances  of 
the  English  Church;  is  disgusted  with  the  state  of  the 
papal  court ;  and,  on  his  return  to  England,  declares  his 
opinion  that  the  pope  is  antichrist. 


Renewed  quarrel  between  the  Pope  and  Visconti. 


t  Petrarch. 


Sect  of  the  Dancers,  in  Flanders. 
The  Waldenses  settled  in  the  Valleys  of  Piedmont. 


Society  of  Fratres  Communis  Vitce  founded  by  Gerard 
u  4 


296  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 

Groot :  a  union  of  priests,  for  preaching  in  the  vernacular 
tongue,  the  instruction  of  youth,  transcribing  and  circu- 
lating the  Scriptures,  and  promoting  Christian  edification 
by  example. 

1376  *  Wickliffe. — The  monks,  having  selected  Nineteen 
Propositions  from  the  lectures  and  discourses  of  Wickliffe, 
send  them  to  Rome  with  a  charge  of  heresy.  Wickliffe 
obtains  the  rectory  of  Lutterworth,  and  the  prebend  of 
Aust  in  the  collegiate  church  of  Westbury. 


1377  After  many  urgent  appeals,  strengthened  by  the  in- 
fluence of  the  famous  Brigitta  and  Catherine  of  Sienna, 
the  pope  finally  quits  Avignon,  and  once  more  fixes  the 
papal  residence  at  Rome. 

Gerson  studies  at  Paris. 


*   Richard  II.  King  of  England. 
1378  Wenceslaus,  Emperor  of  Germany. 


Commencement  of  the  Great  Western  Schism. 

April.  —  Urban  VI.  elected  pope.  French  cardinals 
retire  to  Anagni;  protest  against  the  election,  as  com- 
pulsory ;  denounce  Urban  as  a  destroyer  of  the  Church's 
peace ;  and  elect  Clement  VII.  in  opposition,  who  after- 
wards took  up  his  residence  at  Avignon,  with  his  cardinals. 
The  whole  of  Western  Christendom  divides  into  two 
parties ;  one  supports  the  pope  of  Rome,  the  other  the 
pope  of  Avignon. 

The  Roman  pontiff  had  the  preeminence  throughout 
the  struggle.  During  the  most  flourishing  period  of  the 
court  of  Avignon,  its  pontiffwas  recognised  only  by  France, 
Spain,  Scotland,  Savoy,  and  Lothringia ;  whereas  the  pope 
of  Rome  was  acknowledged  as  head  of  the  Church  by 
Italy,  Germany,  England,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland,  and 
Prussia. 

*  Wickliffe,  after  a  bull  from  the  pope,  ordering  him 
to  be  imprisoned  and  brought  to  trial,  defends  himself 
before  a  convocation  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  this  year. 
He  is  protected  by  the  influence  of  the  Duke  of  Lancaster : 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     297 


1379 


1380 


1381 


1382 


and  his  judges  are  disposed  to  rest  satisfied  with  his  ex- 
planations. The  death  of  the  pope  (Gregory  XI.)  pro- 
bably prevented  the  issuing  of  a  decree  against  him. 

*  Wickliffe  establishes  a  society  of  pious  men,  to  act 
as  itinerant  preachers  in  England.  They  were  called 
Lollards. 


Charles  VI.  King  of  France. 


Tamerlane  propagates  Mohammedanism   in  the  East. 
The  greater  number  of  the  Nestorian  churches  are  de-      S 
stroyed. 

*  Wickliffe  undertakes  his  English  translation  of  the 
Bible.  He  begins  to  oppose  prevalent  errors  respecting 
penance  and  absolution. 

The  Schism.  —  Urban  (at  Rome)  wras  acknowledged 
as  pope  at  first  by  nearly  all  the  powers  of  Europe,  except 
France. 

Peter  d'Ailly,  and  some  other  members  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Parish  recommend  the  convening  of  a  general 
council  for  deciding  the  claims  of  the  rival  popes. 

#  Wickliffe  opposes  (in  part)  the  prevailing  doctrine  of 
Transubstantiation.  The  chancellor  of  Oxford  prohibits 
him  from  maintaining  his  propositions  on  this  subject, 
under  pain  of  imprisonment.  He  appeals  in  vain  to  the 
king.  Many  of  his  friends  alarmed.  He  modifies  his 
statements,  and  continues  to  hold  office  at  Oxford. 


*  Charles  III.  King  of  Naples. 
t  John  Ruysbrock,  mystic. 


*  In  a  council  held  at  London,  Courteney,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  condemns  certain  propositions  attributed 
to  Wickliffe  as  heretical.  The  king  begins  to  lend  his 
support  to  the  hierarchy  against  him. 

Wickliffe  was  eventually  compelled  to  quit  Oxford. 
Having  retired  to  his  rectory  at  Lutterworth,  he  there 
continued  to  write  against  the  abuses  and  corruptions  of 
the  Church  until  his  death  (1384). 


298  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       {Fifth 

1382  University  of  Pest  founded. 


Struggles  between  the  Pope  (Urban)  and  Charles  III. 
King  of  Naples. 

1384  *  t  Wickliffe. 


1385  John  Galeazzo  Visconti  at  Milan. 

Urban  goes  to  Naples,  where  he  deposes  Charles,  whom 
he  had  made  king.  He  is  made  prisoner  by  Charles,  but 
released  by  a  Genoese  fleet.  Many  of  his  cardinals  de- 
sert to  Avignon. 


1387  Christianity  established  in  Poland.  Jagello,  Grand 
Duke  of  Lithuania,  in  order  to  marry  Hedwig,  the  Polish 
queen,  and  to  gain  the  throne,  embraces  the  profession 
of  Christianity  and  is  baptized  (Wladislas  V.).  Com- 
pels his  subjects  to  receive  baptism. 

(Baptism  was  administered  in  Poland  to  the  nobles  in- 
dividually, but  to  the  common  people  in  crowds  together, 
only  the  sexes  being  separated.) 


1388  A  commission  issued  against  the  Lollards. 


e> 


University  of  Cologne  founded. 


1389  Bajazet  I.  Sultan  of  the  Turks. 


Feast  of  the  Visitation  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 


The  Schism  materially  contributes   to   the  decline  of  the 
Papacy. 

1390  The  Third  Jubilee  celebrated.  Boniface  had  ordained 
that  this  solemnity  should  take  place  once  in  every  thirty- 
three  years,  and  had  fixed  this  year  for  the  celebration  of 
the  Jubilee,  which  (according  to  that  scheme)  had  become 
due  in  the  year  1383. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     299 

1391 


1392 


1394 


Manuel  II.  Emperor  of  Constantinople. 
University  of  Ferrara  founded. 
University  of  Erfurt  founded. 
Boniface  demands   payment  of  annates,  or  first  fruits, 
in  advance;   and  then  defrauds  the  purchasers  of  bene- 
fices by  bestowing  their  places  upon  others. 

Call  for  a  Reformation  of  the  Church  in  its  head  and 
members  begins  to  be  heard  ;  and  the  paramount  authority  of 
general  councils  to  be  asserted. 

Disturbances  in  Germany.  The  emperor  made  pri- 
soner by  the  Bohemian  nobles. 


The  Schism.  —  The  University  of  Paris  proposes,  as  a 
means  of  accommodation,  that  both  popes  should  abdicate, 
or  should  appoint  umpires,  or  should  refer  the  decision 
to  a  general  council.  Clement  however,  by  his  influ- 
ence with  the  government,  silences  the  university.  But 
after  the  death  of  Clement,  the  government  and  university 
unite  in  endeavouring  to  prevent  the  election  of  a  succes- 
sor. The  cardinals  at  Avignon,  however,  elected  Peter 
de  Luna,  under  the  title  of  Benedict  XIII.,  having  pre- 
viously bound  him  by  oath  to  use  his  utmost  efforts  for 
the  restoration  of  peace,  and,  if  necessary,  to  abdicate. 

Precursors  of  the  Reformation. 
T  Matthias  of  Jannow  (Magister  Parisiensis),  Confessor 
of  Charles  IV.  By  preaching  and  writing  he  had  advo- 
cated the  cause  of  vital  and  internal  religion  in  opposition 
to  mere  ceremonies  and  forms,  and  had  chastised  the 
worldliness  and  hypocrisy  of  the  clergy  and  monks.  He 
represented  to  the  emperor  the  existing  need  of  a  Reform- 
ation of  the  Church  ;  and  the  emperor  applied  to  the  pope 
on  the  subject.  The  latter  denounced  Matthias  as  a 
bold  heretic  —  he  was-  banished  —  and  subsequently  lived 
at  Prague  in  a  private  station. 


Nicholas  de  Clemangis  (Rector  of  the  University 
of  Paris  in  1393),  publishes  his  celebrated  work  De 
Ruind  Ecclesice  ;  exposing  the  corruptions  of  the  Church, 
and  predicting  the  Reformation. 


300  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         (Fifth 

1395  Gerson,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris. 


#  Petition  of  the  Lollards  presented  to  Parliament. 


1396        Bajazet  defeats  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland,  at  Nico- 
polis. 

#  Wickliffe's  doctrine  and  propositions  condemned  by 
the  Council  of  London. 


1 398  The  Schism.  —  Benedict  having  wearied  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris  and  the  French  Church  by  his  delays  and 
duplicity,  is  this  year  made  prisoner  in  his  palace  at 
Avignon,  when  the  French  Church  renounces  its  allegi- 
ance to  him.  In  1399  he  promises  to  abdicate,  in  case 
of  the  abdication  or  death  of  Boniface. 

John  Huss,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Prague, 


University  of  Angers  founded. 


1399  *  Henry  IV.  of  Lancaster,  King  of  England. 


White  Penitents    (Bianchi),  a  fanatical  sect    in   Italy. 
Their  leader  put  to  death,  and  the  sect  dispersed. 


Cen- 
tury, 


End  of  The  chief  theological  controversies  of  this  century  were,  — 
Four-  that  between  the  Thomists  and  Scotists,  —  one  concern- 
teenth  ing  the  poverty  of  Christ  and  his  Apostles,  —  and  another 
relating  to  the  vision  of  God  by  disembodied  spirits.  The 
superstitious  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation  also  began  to 
be  called  in  question  more  boldly  and  more  generally 
than  hitherto. 

Large  numbers   of  reputed  heretics  were   persecuted 
and  destroyed  by  the  Inquisition. 

Many  new   saints    were  added   to   the   calendar,   and 
various  superstitions  introduced,  during  this  century. 


j400        Wenceslaus  deposed.     Robert  (Count  Palatine)   Em- 
peror of  Germany. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     301 

The  Medici  in  Florence.     The  Visconti  in  Milan. 


1400 


1401 


1402 


1403 


Timour  (Tamerlane)  was  hostile  to  Christianity.  But 
Christians  (especially  Nestorians)  continued  to  exist  in 
various  parts  of  his  empire. 

Jerome  of  Prague  labours  for  the  "conversion  of  the 
remaining  pagans  of  Lithuania ;  he  encounters  much  op- 
position.    Idolatry  not  yet  extirpated. 


Huss,  Confessor  to  the  Queen  of  Bohemia. 


#  Henry  IV.   assists    the   bishops   in    their   measures 
against  the  Lollards.     Statute  against  them. 


University  of  Turin  founded;  also,  University  of  Cracow 
(revived  in  1817). 

*  William  Sawtrey,  an  English  priest,  burnt  for  alleged 
heresy. 

Bajazet  defeated  and  made  prisoner  by  Timour.    Otto- 
man and  Greek  Empires  tributary  to  Timour. 


Huss,  Preacher  at  the  Chapel  of  Bethlehem.  Jerome  of 
Prague  returns  from  Oxford  to  Prague,  where  he  pro- 
pagates Wickliffe's  opinions  ;  especially  after  the  arrival 
of  two  of  Wickliffe's  followers  from  Oxford  in  1404. 

The  Schism.  —  The  French  Church  renews  its  obedi- 
ence to  the  pope  of  Avignon. 


University  of  Wurtzburg  founded  (revived  in  1589). 

In  the  course  of  this  century,  literature  begins  to  revive, 
under  the  favourable  influence  of  various  causes ;  such  as 
were,  —  the  presence  of  learned  Greek  refugees  in  Italy 
—  the  invention  of  printing  —  the  patronage  of  the 
great. 


302 


FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       (Fifth 


1494        Death  of  Timour.     His  empire  dismembered  and  de- 
stroyed. 

The  Schism.  —  After  the  death  of  Boniface  (of  Rome) 
Benedict  refuses  to  abdicate.  The  Roman  cardinals  elect 
Innocent  VII. 

*  Wicklifftfs  doctrines  condemned  by  the  University  of 
Prague,  the  Bohemians  being  outvoted  by  the  Bavarians, 
Saxons,  and  Poles. 

140,5         The  Festival  of  the  Holy  Trinity  (introduced  probably 
during  the  twelfth  century)  begins  to  be  generally  observed. 


The  Roman  Pope  (Innocent  VII.)  involved  in  a  dispute 
with  Ladislaus,  King  of  Naples. 


1406  The  Schism. — Upon  the  death  of  Innocent,  the  Roman 
cardinals  elect  a  pope  (Gregory  XII.)  eighty  years  of 
age,  hoping  by  this  means  to  facilitate  a  termination  of 
the  Schism. 

Gerson,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  main- 
tains the  paramount  authority  of  a  general  council  for  the 
controul,  and  even  deposition,  of  a  pope  ;  and  insists  upon 
the  necessity  of  a  Reformation  of  the  Church  in  its  head 
and  in  its  members. 

1407  ^HE  Schism. —  Gregory  and  Benedict  had  appointed 
to  meet  at  Savona  for  the  purpose  of  a  joint  abdication. 
Benedict  goes  to  Savona ;  Gregory  advances  only  as  far 
as  Lucca,  and  then  declares  Savona  an  unfit  place  for  the 
meeting.     No  abdication. 

1408  *  Wickliffe's  doctrines  condemned  by  the  Council  of 
London. 

The  Schism. —  The  Roman  cardinals  endeavour  to 
compel  Gregory  to  take  effectual  measures  for  the  abdi- 
cation ;  but  in  vain.  Benedict,  having  exhausted  the 
patience  of  France,  and  being  threatened  with  imprison- 
ment, flees  to  Perpignan.  The  cardinals  of  both  parties 
unite  in  convening  a  general  council,  to  be  held  at  Pisa 
in  the  following  year. 


Period,)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     303 


1409 


1410 


General  Council  of  Pisa. 

Gregory  and  Benedict  refuse  to  appear.  The  council 
deposes  both.  Then,  instead  of  establishing  measures  of 
reformation  in  the  Church,  as  had  been  proposed,  it  pro- 
ceeds to  a  new  election,  and  appoints  a  third  pope, 
Alexander  V.  The  new  pope  dissolves  the  council,  and 
refers  the  consideration  of  reform  to  a  future  general 
council,  to  be  held  within  three  years. 

This  council  consisted  of  22  cardinals,  4  patriarchs,  12 
archbishops  present  and  14  represented,  80  bishops  pre- 
sent and  102  represented,  a  large  number  of  abbots  and 
superior  clergy,  delegates  from  nearly  20  universities,  and 
from  many  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  upwards  of 
300  doctors  of  divinity  and  canon  law. 

The  Schism  increased  instead  of  terminated.  Each  of  the 
three  popes  has  his  adherents,  and  each  excommunicates  the 
others. 

Huss. —  Sbinco,  Archbishop  of  Prague,  accuses  Huss  at 
Rome  as  a  follower  of  Wickliflfe.  The  pope  grants  a  bull 
authorising  him  to  seize  WicklifFe's  writings,  to  put  his 
followers  on  their  trial,  and  to  forbid  preaching  in  private 
chapels. 

Huss  and  Jerome,  with  the  Bohemians,  obtain  an  edict 
from  King  Wenceslaus,  granting  to  the  Bohemians  of  the 
University  of  Prague  three  votes  out  of  four  in  all  acade- 
mical transactions.  The  Germans  retire  from  Prague, 
and  found  the  University  of  Leipsic.  (The  University  of 
Aix  also  was  founded  this  year.) 

At  this  time,  there  are  said  to  have  been  twenty  thou- 
sand students  in  the  University  of  Prague  (founded  in 
1348). 

University  of  Valentia  founded. 


Alexander  V.  dies ;  probably  poisoned  by  Balthassar 
Cossa,  who  procures  his  own  election  as  his  successor, 
under  the  title  of  John  XXIII. 

Huss.  —  The  archbishop  of  Prague  burns  Wickli fife's 
works  and  some  writings  of  Huss,  and  forbids  Huss  to 


304  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.  (Fifth 


1411 


1412 


1413 


preach  in  the  Chapel  of  Bethlehem.  Huss  remains  firm  in 
his  profession  of  the  truth  so  far  as  he  had  discovered  it; 
and  continues  to  preach.  In  141 1  the  pope  (John  XXIII.) 
condemns  and  excommunicates  Huss ;  who  appeals,  a  papa 
male  informato  ad  papam  melius  informandum. 


Sigismund,  Emperor  of  Germany. 


University  of  St.  Andrews  founded. 


John  XXIII.  endeavours  to  conciliate  the  University 
of  Paris,  and  convenes  a  general  council  at  Rome,  hoping 
to  establish  his  authority  to  the  exclusion  of  his  rivals ; 
but  in  vain. 

D'Ailly  and  Gerson  in  their  writings  insist  upon  the 
necessity  of  a  general  council,  entirely  free  and  indepen- 
dent, for  a  radical  Reformation  of  the  Church.  The 
Emperor  Sigismund  presses  the  same  point. 

The  pope's  legate,  sent  with  the  pallium  to  the  new 
archbishop  of  Prague,  takes  with  him  a  bull  for  the 
issue  of  Indulgences  to  all  who  should  join  a  crusade 
against  Ladislaus,  King  of  Naples.  Huss  and  Jerome 
protest  against  the  doctrine  and  sale  of  Indulgences. 

A  fresh  bull  against  Huss  —  the  place  of  his  residence 
laid  under  an  interdict.  Huss  appeals  from  the  judgment  of 
the  pope  to  the  judgment  of  Christ.  About  this  time  he 
writes  his  book  De  Ecclesia ;  (in  which  he  erroneously 
denies  the  existence  of  a  visible  external  church,  and  main- 
tains that  the  true  church  is  only  invisible  and  spiritual). 

Huss  quits  Prague,  and  retires  to  his  native  village. 

$•  Several  of  Wickliffe's  writings  condemned  by  the 
pope  in  a  council  at  Rome. 


*  Henry  V.  King  of  England. 


1414  Peace  between  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  Naples. 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.       305 


General  Council  of  Constance, 

for  the  termination  oftheSchism,  and  the  extirpation  of  Heresy, 
John  wished  the  council  to  be  considered  as  a  continu- 
ation of  that  of  Pisa,  in  which  case  it  must  acknowledge 
him  as  pope ;  but  D'Ailly  and  his  supporters  carried  the 
motion,  that  it  should  be  entirely  independent  and  supreme, 
and  in  a  condition  to  depose  all  three  popes  if  necessary. 
John  desired  that  the  council  should  confine  its  acts  to  mat- 
ters of  doctrine  and  the  extirpation  of  heresy  ;  but  it  was 
carried  by  D'Ailly  and  his  party  that  the  Reformation  of  the 
Church  in  its  head  and  in  its  members  should  form  a  chief 
subject  of  the  deliberations.  John  proposed  that  none  but 
bishops  and  abbots  should  have  seats  and  voices  in  the 
council,  hoping  to  secure  a  majority  on  his  side  by  means 
of  titular  bishops  and  abbots  in  his  train ;  but  the  pro- 
posal of  D'Ailly  and  his  friends  prevailed,  to  the  effect 
that  all  those  who  exercised  the  office  of  teaching  and 
preaching  in  the  Church  should  be  admitted  to  vote. 
Lastly,  John  desired  that  the  votes  should  be  taken  indi- 
vidually, but  it  was  resolved  that  they  should  be  taken  by 
nations  collectively,  i,  e.  the  deputies  of  each  of  the  four 
nations,  Germany,  Italy,  France,  and  England,  should 
first  make  decrees  by  majority  of  votes  in  separate  assem- 
blies ;  and  then  those  which  had  been  enacted  by  the 
majority  of  nations  should  be  adopted  by  the  general 
assembly,  and  proclaimed  as  the  decrees  of  the  council. 

In  February,  1415,  charges  of  impiety  and  profaneness 
were  preferred  against  John.  Abdication  being  pressed 
upon  him,  John  escaped  from  the  council,  and  fled  to  Shaff- 
hausen.  This  involved  the  danger  of  a  dissolution  of  the 
council;  but  the  firmness  of  the  emperor  and  the  influ- 
ence of  Gerson  prevailed  so  as  to  keep  it  together;  and  it 
was  resolved,  "  that  the  Council  of  Constance,  as  representa- 
tive of  the  Church  Militant,  derives  its  authority  immediately 
from  Christ,  and  that  every  one,  not  excepting  the  pope,  is 
bound  to  submit  to  it  in  matters  relating  to  faith,  to  the  re- 
moval of  the  schism,  and  to  the  Reformation  of  the  Church  in 

x 


306  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.  (Fifth 

its  head  and  members."  Proceedings  were  then  instituted 
against  John,  who  was  eventually  deposed,  and  made 
prisoner.  Gregory  abdicated.  Benedict,  after  some  re- 
sistance, being  deserted  by  the  Spaniards,  was  deposed,  in 
the  thirty-seventh  session  of  the  council,  a.d.  1417. 

The  emperor  now  urged  upon  the  council  the  necessity 
of  proceeding  to  make  provision  for  the  Reformation 
of  the  Church,  especially  in  its  head,  before  electing  a 
new  pope.  The  great  majority,  however,  objected  to  this 
course,  and  were  even  prepared  to  denounce  the  emperor 
as  a  favourer  of  the  Hussite  heresy  (as  it  was  termed),  and  as 
denying  the  necessity  for  any  visible  head  of  the  Universal 
Church.  At  first  Germany  and  England,  but  afterwards 
Germany  alone,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  emperor. 
Sigismund  was  obliged  to  yield;  and  the  council  pro- 
ceeded, in  the  first  place,  to  the  election  of  a  new  pope — - 
Martin  V. 

Decrees  for  reformation,  partial  and  imperfect ;  and 
some  of  these  afterwards  rendered  nugatory.  It  was 
enacted,  that  in  matters  of  faith  no  appeal  should  be  made 
from  the  pope,  nor  any  protest  against  his  decision  be 
allowed;  contrary  to  principles  established  by  the  Council 
of  Pisa. 

No  real  Reformation  effected  by  this  Council. 

The  pope  dissolved  the  council  in  its  forty-fifth  session  ; 
and  having  granted  to  all  its  members  and  their  attend- 
ants  a  full  absolution  for  all  sins  to  the  hour  of  their 
death,  on  condition  of  their  fasting  (or  performing  some 
other  good  works)  every  Friday  throughout  two  years, 
he  left  Constance  (May  16.  1418),  his  horse  being  led  by 
the  emperor  and  the  elector  of  Brandenburg;  40,000 
gentry  and  clergy  following  in  procession. 

Hnss  summoned  to  appear  before  the  Council  of  Constance ; 
arrives  at  Constance  on  the  3d  of  November;  made 
prisoner,  notwithstanding  the  emperor's  safe  conduct.  The 
emperor  orders  his  liberation;  but  he  is  told  that,  as  a  lay- 
man, he  cannot  interfere  in  such  matters;  and  that  a  pro- 
mise made  to  a  heretic  is  not  binding. 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.      307 

June  5,  7,  8.  —  Huss  brought  before  the  council.  A 
total  recantation  of  his  alleged  errors,  and  absolute  sub- 
mission to  the  council  required,  and  refused.  Huss  con- 
demned as  a  heretic,  degraded,  delivered  to  the  secular  arm, 
and  burnt  (July  6.). 

Jerome  seized  in  April ;  brought  prisoner  to  Constance ; 
defended  his  opinions  before  the  council  (May  23.) ;  sub- 
scribed to  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation  (July  19.); 
after  a  wearisome  imprisonment,  he  recanted  all  the 
doctrines  attributed  to  himself,  Huss,  and  Wickliffe,  and 
professed  his  approval  of  the  condemnation  of  Huss  and 
his  doctrines  (September  11.) ;  but  he  was  still  detained  in 
prison  under  the  suspicion  of  his  enemies. 

(The  council  rejected  forty-five  of  Wickliffe's  propo- 
sitions as  heretical ;  but  the  doctrines  of  Wickliffe  continued 
to  gain  ground  in  TLngland  and  in  Bohemia,  tending  greatly 
to  pave  the  way  for  the  Reformation.) 

(The  Council  of  Constance  was  attended  by  the  em- 
peror and  empress,  with  a  train  of  1000  followers,  — 3  pa- 
triarchs, 22  cardinals  (including  D'Ailly),  20  archbishops, 
92  bishops  (at  first,  afterwards  more),  124  abbots  (each 
with  large  attendance),  many  princes  (with  large  retinues) 
and  ambassadors,  1800  priests,  and  a  still  larger  number 
of  other  clergy,  many  doctors  of  divinity  and  canon  law, 
deputies  from  several  universities  (including  Gerson, 
Chancellor  of  Paris),  and  a  large  body  of  monks. 


1414 


Ninety-one  Flagellants  burnt  this  year  by  the  Inqui- 
sition.   

*  The  followers  of  Wickliffe  (Lollards)  severely  perse- 
cuted in  England. 

Communion  in  both  kinds.  Jacobellus  de  Misa,  friend  of 
Huss,  at  Prague,  insists  upon  the  necessity  of  receiving 
the  communion  in  both  kinds.  Huss  declares  such  admi- 
nistration to  be  conformable  to  primitive  practice,  and 
desirable ;  but  dissuades  from  violent  measures  for  obtain- 
ing the  privilege.    Opposition  to  the  Council  of  Constance, 

x  2 


308  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY    VII.         {Fifth 

which  had  determined  that  the  Lord's  supper  had  been 
instituted  in  both  kinds,  but  that  the  Church  possessed 
authority  to  order  the  administration  in  one  kind  only ; 
and  that  all  who  should  not  submit  to  the  Church  and 
Council  in  this  respect  would  deserve  to  be  punished  as 
heretics. 


1415 
1416 


1417 


1419 


1420 


Battle  of  Agincourt. 


(al.  1418.)  *  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  Lord  Cobham,  exe- 
cuted for  alleged  heresy,  &c. 

Jerome  of  Prague.  Fresh  charges  having  been  pre- 
ferred against  Jerome,  he  was  brought  before  the  council 
(May  23.  and  26.  this  year).  Here  he  vindicates  the 
memory  of  Huss,  and  formally  revokes  his  timid  recan- 
tation.    Condemned  and  burnt  (May  30.). 

War  of  the  Hussites.  At  Prague  the  Hussites  demand 
the  administration  of  the  communion  in  both  kinds. 
Some  thousands  rise  in  arms  under  Ziska  and  Nicholas  of 
Hussinetz,  retire  to  a  mountain,  and  build  a  town  (Tabor), 
as  a  place  of  rendezvous  for  their  party.  Thus  begins 
the  war  of  the  Hussites. 


The  Emperor  Sigismund,  after  the  death  of  Wenceslaus, 
becomes  King  of  Bohemia. 

f  Vincentius  Ferrarius  (Ferreri),  a  Spanish  Dominican. 

(He  had  preached  in  Spain,  France,  and  Italy.  In 
1406  he  was  in  England.  He  headed  several  processions 
of  Flagellants,  but  was  dissuaded  from  the  practice  by 
Gerson.) 

University  of  Rostock  founded. 


Treaty  of  Troyes.    Henry  V.  of  England  acknowledged 


heir  to  the  Kingdom  of  France. 


War  of  the  Hussites.     The   Hussites  begin  to   divide 
into  two  parties,  the  more  moderate  demanding  only  the 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.      309 

restoration  of  the  cup  to  the  laity,  the  translation  and  ex- 
position of  services  in  the  vernacular  tongue,  improvement 
of  Church  discipline,  and  reducing  the  revenues  of  the 
clergy  (Calixtines,  Utraquists), —  others  desiring  to  carry 
reform  to  still  greater  lengths,  and  to  restore  apostolical 
simplicity  (Taborites). 


1422 


1423 


1424 

1425 
1426 

1429 


Study  of  Theology.  —  About  this  time  some  divines  of 
the  University  of  Paris  contended  for  a  reformation  of 
theology,  against  the  scholastic  method  of  teaching.  The 
improvements  which  they  proposed  were,  however,  partial 
and  imperfect;  and  the  erroneous  and  false  views  which 
they  themselves  entertained  contributed,  in  a  great  degree, 
to  neutralise  their  efforts.  Among  these  men  wereckon 
Peter  d'Ailly,  Archbishop  of  Cambray  (f  1425),  Gerson 
(|  1429),  Nicholas  de  Clemangis  (t  cir.  1440.). 


#  Henry  VI.  (a  minor)  King  of  England. 

The  son  of  Charles  VI.  of  France  claims  the  throne  of 
that  kingdom,  under  the  title  of  Charles  VII. 

Temporal  princes  now  begin  successfidly  to  vindicate  their 
authority  against  the  tyranny  and  encroachments  of  the 
pope. 

At  Constance  the  pope  had  fixed  upon  this  year  as  the 
date  of  the  next  general  council,  to  be  held  at  Pavia.  A 
council  was  opened  there,  but  soon  afterwards  transferred 
to  Sienna;  and  then  dissolved,  after  the  transaction  of 
some  unimportant  business  under  the  presidency  of  a 
papal  legate.  Next  council  to  be  held  at  Basle  (1431). 

War  of  the  Hussites.  \  Ziska.  Procopius  Rasa,  General 
of  the  Hussites. 


t  Peter  d'Ailly. 
University  of  Louvain  founded. 


Clement  VIII.  resigns.     Martin  V,  sole  Pope. 
End  of  the  Great  Western  Schism. 


x  3 


310  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         (Fifth 

1429        Maid   of  Orleans.      Charles   VII.    King   of  France, 
crowned  at  Rheims. 


t  Gerson,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris  (Doc- 
tor Venerabilis  et  Christianissimns). 


1430  University  of  Caen  founded. 

14dl  University  of  Poitiers  founded. 

Rise  of  the  Medici  family  at  Florence  (Cosmo  de 
Medici). 

General  Council  of  Basle, 

under  the  presidency  of  Cardinal  Julianus  Cesarini,  as 
pope's  legate.  The  tone  of  this  council  appears  bold  and 
independent.  The  pope,  under  certain  pretexts,  endeavours 
to  suspend  its  proceedings,  and  to  cause  it  to  postpone  its 
sessions  until  it  should  re-assemble  at  Bologna,  after  the 
lapse  of  a  year  and  a  half.  The  council  resists  the  at- 
tempt, and  asserts  its  superiority  over  the  pope.  Fruit- 
less negotiations  take  place,  until  at  length  the  pope 
dissolves  the  council  by  a  bull  in  1437.  The  council 
resists  for  some  time ;  but  the  German  princes  fearing  a 
new  schism,  and  the  pope  having  been  obliged  by  worse 
troubles  at  Rome  to  flee  to  Florence,  the  matter  is  ad- 
justed. The  bull  revoked ;  but  proceedings  of  the  coun- 
cil suspended  for  a  time. 

In  1434  the  council  passes  various  decrees  adapted  to 
limit  the  power  of  the  pope,  and  to  promote  the  reform- 
ation of  the  Church.  The  pope  finds  fault  with  these 
proceedings.  In  1437  he  convenes  a  new  general  council 
at  Ferrara.  The  legate  quits  Basle  ;  but  the  Council  of 
Basle  continues  its  sessions  after  the  opening  of  the  pope's 
council,  and  suspends  the  pope. 

The  two  general  councils  excommunicate  each  other; 
and  as  the  former  schism  had  weakened  the  poiver  of  the 
popes,  this  destroyed  the  influence  of  general  councils. 


Period.) 
1431 


TO    THE    BEGINNING    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 


311 


1433 


1434 


1436 


1438 


The  Feast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  was  confirmed 
by  the  Council  of  Basle. 


University  of  Florence  founded. 


The  Council  of  Basle  negotiates  with  the  Hussites.  Three 
hundred  deputies  of  that  party  at  Basle  (January  9.).  Dis- 
putation of  fifty  days.  Council  at  length  assents  to  the 
four  articles  of  the  Calixtines,  with  certain  modifications 
and  restrictions.     The  Taborites  refuse  to  acquiesce. 

Calixtines  unite  with  the  Romanists  against  the  Tabor- 
ites,  who  are  entirely  defeated  (May  30.)  near  Prague. 

Phil.  M.  Visconti,  of  Milan,  opposed  to  the  Pope. 


The  strict  Franciscans  now  compose  a  separate  order  of 
the  Hermits  of  St.  Francis,  or  Minimi.  (Confirmed  by 
papal  authority  in  1474). 

Breach  of  faith,  on  the  part  of  the  pope  and  emperor, 
with  the  Calixtines,  leads  to  fresh  disturbances  in  Bo- 
hemia. 

Albert  of  Austria,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
The  Pragmatic  Sanction  established  in  France. 


The  pope  opened  his  council  at  Ferrara  in  1438  ;  trans- 
ferred it  to  Florence  in  1439 ;  and  thence  to  Rome  in 
1442. 

The  Greek  Emperor,  John  VII.  (Palseologus),  accom- 
panied by  many  Greek  prelates,  attends  the  councils  at 
Ferrara  and  Florence,  with  a  view  to  the  union  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  Greeks  differ  among  them- 
selves. Marcus  Eugenicus,  Bishop  of  Ephesus,  contends 
for  strict  Greek  orthodoxy  against  Bessarion,  Bishop  of 
Nicaea,  who  favours  the  emperor's  proposals.  Articles  of 
union,  however,  were  completed  (1439) ;  but,  the  strict 
Greek  orthodox  persevering  in  their  opposition,  the  union 
did  not  take  effect.  From  this  time  however,  and  especially 

x  4 


312  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       {Fifth 

I  after  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  the  Latinising  party 
in  the  Greek  Church  increased. 
1439  The  German  princes  resolve  to  adopt  the  decrees  of 
the  Council  of  Basle,  so  far  as  they  do  not  affect  the 
pope's  person.  The  council  (25th  of  June,  1439)  de- 
poses Eugenius  as  a  disturber  of  the  peace,  a  heretic,  and 
perjured.  Felix  V.  appointed  to  succeed.  This  appoint- 
ment recognised  by  only  a  few  universities  and  towns, 
and  the  council  unable  to  maintain  its  position.  Many 
of  its  adherents,  including  iEneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini, 
go  over  to  the  opposite  party. 

The  Council  of  Basle  continued  to  lose  its  influence. 
In  1448  it  removed  to  Lausanne  ;  and  here  dissolved,  in 
1449,  having  recognised  Nicholas  V.  as  pope. 


The  doctrine  of  Purgatory  declared  to  be  an  article  of 
faith  by  the  Council  of  Florence. 


1440        Frederick  III.  of  Austria,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
(A  weak  emperor,  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  Papal 
See.) 


1441  j*  Nicholas  de  Clemangis  (Doctor  Theologus). 

University  of  Bordeaux,  and  #  Eton  College,  founded. 
Invention  of  the  Art  of  Printing. 


1444         Battle   of  Varna.     Ladislaus,    King  of  Hungary  and 
Poland,  defeated  and  slain  bv  the  Turks  under  Amurath  II. 


1445  Eugenius  deposes  the  archbishops  of  Cologne  and 
Treves  on  account  of  their  adherence  to  Felix.  The  de- 
posed bishops  were  also  electors  of  Germany ;  hence  the  act 
of  Eugenius  appeared  as  an  attack  upon  the  dignity  of  the 
empire  and  the  liberties  of  the  German  Church.  In  the 
following  year  (1446),  the  body  of  electors,  assembled  at 
Frankfort-on-the- Maine,  resolved  to  demand  from  the  pope 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.       313 

a  declaration  securing  the  liberties  of  their  national  church, 
a  recognition  of  the  decrees  of  Constance  and  Basle  con- 
cerning the  authority  of  general  councils,  restoration  of 
the  deposed  archbishops,  and  the  assembling  of  a  council 
in  Germany.  They  resolve,  in  case  of  the  pope's  refusal, 
to  declare  for  Felix.  Eugenius  at  first  threatened  resist- 
ance ;  but  at  length,  by  the  mediation  of  ./Eneas  Sylvius, 
who  modified  the  demands  of  the  electors,  the  pope  com- 
plied, and  the  whole  German  Church  submitted  to 
Eugenius  shortly  before  his  death  (1447). 

University  of  Catania  founded. 


1446  *  The  English  have  now  lost  all  their  possessions  in 
France,  except  Calais. 

1447  The  electors  of  Germany,  at  Aschaffenberg,  resolved 
that,  for  the  security  of  the  liberties  of  the  German  Church, 
its  relation  to  the  pope  should  be  defined  by  a  diet  at 
Nuremberg.  But,  in  1448,  the  emperor,  on  behalf  of 
the  German  nation,  concluded  a  Concordat  with  the 
pope  at  Vienna,  favourable  to  papal  interests,  by  the  in- 
fluence of  iEneas  Sylvius,  Bishop  of  Trieste. 


1448       Constantine  XL  (PaLuEologus)  Emperor  of 
Cons  tantinople. 


1450  *  University  of  Glasgow  founded. 

The  pope  prohibits  the  compulsory  baptism  of  Jews  in 
Sicily;  but  commands  them  to  hear  sermons  four  times 
a  year,  under  pain  of  capital  punishment. 


The  Jubilee  was  celebrated  at  Rome  this  year,  accord- 
ing to  the  constitution  of  Clement  VI. 


to  1466.     Francis  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan. 


1453        Constantinople  taken   by  the  Turks    under    Mahom- 
met  II. 

End  of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Empire. 


314  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.  (Fifth 

1454  *  End  of  English  Government  in  France, 


University  of  Treves  founded. 
T  Alphonso  Tostatus  (Commentary  on  Scripture). 
About  this  time,  the  study  of  classical  antiquity  revives 
in  Italy. 
1456         Universities  of  Greifswald  and  Freiburg  founded. 


#  Civil  wars  in  England  between  the  Houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster. 


The  pope  (Calixtus)  endeavours  in  vain  to  promote  a 
Crusade  against  the  Turks. 


The  electors  of  Germany  demand  some  security  of 
the  liberties  of  the  national  church,  similar  to  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction  obtained  by  France  in  1438,  as  the  con- 
dition of  their  recognising  Calixtus  as  pope.  But  the 
emperor,  convinced  by  ^Eneas  Sylvius  of  the  identity  of 
the  imperial  and  papal  interests,  acknowledges  Calixtus 
(1456)  without  further  hesitation.  The  protestation  of 
the  electors  tended  to  encourage  some  men  to  raise  their 
voices  against  the  (pretended)  divine  authority,  and  the 
necessity,  of  papal  government. 

The  Feast  of  the  Transfiguration  made  general  in  the 
Western  Church.  (This  was  generally  observed,  as  a  high 
festival,  in  the  Greek  Church,  as  early  as  the  sixth  century; 
introduced  into  the  West  before  the  close  of  the  eighth). 

145*7  Formation  of  the  Church  of  the  Bohemian  (and  Mo- 
ravian) Brethren  (Unitas  Fratrum),  from  the  remnant  of 
the  Hussites. 

14-58  By  the  abilities  and  energy  of  iEneas  Sylvius  as  pope 
(Pius  II.),  the  Papacy  obtains  a  temporary  revival  of  its 
influence.  The  two  leading  objects  of  this  pontiff  were, 
the  promotion  of  a  Crusade  against  the  Turks,  and  the 
preservation  of  the  absolute  supremacy  of  the  Papal  See, 
in  opposition  to  the  innovating  spirit  of  the  age. 


Period.)        to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.       315 

#■  Reginald  Pecock,  Bishop  of  Chichester,  deposed,  on 
account  of  alleged  errors,  &c.  i.  e.  opinions  nearly  in  ac- 
cordance with  those  of  WicklifFe. 

At  the  General  Council  of  Mantua,  Pius  fails  in  his 
attempts  to  set  on  foot  a  Crusade.  He  procures  a  prohi- 
bition of  all  appeals  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council;  and 
the  condemnation  of  the  principles  of  Constance  and 
Basle  on  this  head  as  heretical. 

Appeals  by  German  princes  from  the  pope  to  a  general 
council  followed  by  excommunication  and  defeat. 


University  of  Basle  founded. 


*  Edward  IV.  King  of  England. 
Louis  XL  King  of  France. 
Ivan   Basilowitz   the  Great,  Grand  Duke  of  Russia, 
founder  of  the  independence  of  the  Russian  Empire. 


Controversy  concerning  the  honour  due  to  the  blood 
of  Christ  apart  from  his  body. 


After  various  disputes  and  accommodations  with  the 
Calixtines,  the  pope  finally  refuses  to  confirm  the  com- 
pact of  Basle.  The  Calixtines  henceforth  a  private  party, 
or  sect,  until  the  sixteenth  century. 

Pius  II.  explicitly  retracts  his  former  liberal  principles 
and  writings. 


University  of  Bourges  founded. 
T  Nicholas   de  Cusa.     A  strenuous  supporter  of  eccle- 
siastical  tradition,    to    the  disparagement    of   Scripture. 
An  opponent  of  the  scholastic  system,  in  his  treatise  De 
Docta  Ignorantia. 

t  Laurentius  Valla  (Annotations  on  the   New  Testa- 
ment). 

(1464-9.)  Pietro  de  Medici,  at  Florence. 

Diet  of  Nuremburg. 


316  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.  {Fifth 

1467;  The  Church  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  suffers  violent 
and  cruel  persecution  from  the  Church  of  Rome  ;  which 
lasts,  at  intervals,  through  many  years.  The  Brethren 
distinguished  by  their  simplicity  of  faith,  meekness,  and 
patience  in  suffering. 

Erasmus  born,  at  Rotterdam. 
(1469-92.)   Lorenzo  de  Medici,  at  Florence. 


1471  The  new  pope  (Sixtus  IV.)  became  infamous  by 
taking  part  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  House  of  Medici, 
and  by  licensing  houses  of  ill-fame  at  Rome  for  the  sake 
of  revenue. 

j*  Thomas  a  Kempis. 

1472  Bessarion,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  afterwards 
Roman  Cardinal  (Defender  of  Latin  tenets). 

University  of  Ingolstadt  founded. 

1474  University  of  Saragossa  founded. 

Order   of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Francis  (Minimi)  esta- 
blished by  papal  authority. 

1475  Paul  II-  (m  1470)  having  finally  ordained  that  the 
Jubilee  should  be  celebrated  every  twenty-five  years,  it 
became  due  this  year,  but  failed  to  attract  to  Rome  so 
great  a  concourse  as  formerly. 


*  In    England,    various    individuals    were   burnt   for 
heresy,  from  time  to  time. 


1 477        A  German  translation  of  the  Bible,  from  the  Vulgate  ; 
badly  executed. 

Universities  of  Mentz,  Tubingen,  and  Upsal,  founded. 
(Mentz  revived,  1784.) 
1479  University  of  Copenhagen  founded. 


Union  of  Arragon  and  Castile.     Ferdinand  II.  (1479 
—1516);  and  Isabella  (1504). 


Precursors    of  the    Reformation. — John    Bur  chard    (of 
Wesel)  having  opposed  many  prevalent  errors,  especially 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     317 

those  relating  to  Indulgences,  brought  to  trial  by  the 
archbishop  of  Mentz.  He  consents  to  modify  his  state- 
ments ;  but  his  writings  are  burnt,  and  himself  con- 
demned to  perpetual  confinement  in  a  monastery,  where 
he  died  (1482). 


1480 


1481 
1482 
1483 


1484 
1485 

1486 

1487 

1489 


Beginning  of  the  Italian  wars  between  France,  Naples, 
the  Emperor,  and  Venice. 

During  these  contests,  the  popes  form  alliances  some- 
times with  one  of  the  opposite  parties,  and  sometimes  with 
the  other. 


Establishment  of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain. 
Celebration  of  the  first  Auto-da- Fe  in  Spain. 


Bonaventura  canonized. 

QEcolampadius  born. 

Martin  Luther  born,  at  Eisleben. 


to  1498.   Charles  VIII.  King  of  France. 
#  Edward  V.  and  afterwards    Richard   III.    King  of 
England. 

Ulrich  Zwingle  born. 


*  Henry  VII.  (Tudor)  King  of  England. 
His  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  puts 
an  end  to  the  civil  wars. 


i  George  of  Trapezond  (Latin  translator  of  the  Greek 
Fathers). 

to  1489.     Independence  of  Switzerland. 


Crusade    against    the  Waldenses,   encouraged    by  the 
promise  of  a  plenary  indulgence  from  the  pope. 


t  John  Wessel,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Fleidelberg, 
Colonne,  Lyons,  Paris,  and  lastly  at  Groningen. 

He  had  maintained  publicly  that  the  Bible  is  the  only 


318  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.  {Fifth 

infallible  source  of  Christian  knowledge,  and  had  taught  the 
doctrines  of  repentance  and  justification  in  a  manner  op- 
posed to  the  errors  of  the  dominant  church. 
1490        Another   German  translation  of  the   Bible,  from  the 
Vulgate. 

1492  Capture  of  Granada  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

End  of  the  Saracen  Empire  in  Spain. 


Columbus  discovers  America. 


During  the  late  pontificates,  the  corruption  and  profli- 
gacy of  the  court  of  Rome  had  risen  to  an  enormous  height. 
This  year,  the  profligate  and  abandoned  Cardinal  Borgia, 
having  purchased  the  votes  of  the  college,  was  made  pope, 
under  the  title  of  Alexander  VI.  His  whole  pontificate  was 
signalised  by  disgraceful  vices,  his  leading  aim  throughout 
being  to  enrich  his  (illegitimate)  children,  especially  the 
dissolute  Csesar  Borgia.  For  this  object  perfidy  and  poi- 
son were  continually  employed. 


1493  Maximilian  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

1494  Expedition    of   Charles  VIII.    of   France    into    Italy. 
Italian  wars  until  1559. 


Monasteries  belonging  to  Dominicans  now  amount  to 


4143. 


1495 


T  John  Picus  of  Mirandola. 
t  Gabriel  Biel. 


The  Jews  in  Spain  and  Portugal  compelled  to  embrace 
the  profession  of  Christianity.  In  Portugal,  their  children 
(under  fourteen  years  of  age)  are  instructed  in  Christian 
doctrine.  In  Granada,  Ximenes  causes  several  thousand 
Mohammedans  to  be  baptized  without  instruction. 


The  Power  of  the  Roman  See  is  now  very  much 
impaired. 


Period.)  to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     319 

Scandalous  profligacy,   avarice,  and   cruelty  of  Pope 
Alexander  VL  and  his  family. 


Melanchthon  born. 


Vasco  de  Gama  discovers  a  new  passage  to  India  by 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Louis  XII.  King  of  France. 


Precursors  of  the  Reformation.  - —  Jerome  Savonarola,  a 
Dominican,  who  had  for  some  time  past  preached  scrip- 
tural doctrines  at  Florence  with  great  effect,  accused  of 
heresy,  condemned,  tortured,  and  burnt. 


University  of  Alcala  (Complutum)  founded, 
(j*  Marsilius  Ficinus,  a  Platonist.) 


During  this  century,  the  labours  of  various  witnesses  of 
truth  had  succeeded  to  a  certain  extent  in  correcting  pre- 
valent errors  respecting,  —  the  authority  of  Scripture  as 
the  rule  of  faith  ;  justification  and  good  works  ;  absolution 
and  indulgence ;  invocation  of  saints,  and  the  use  of 
images ;  the  nature  of  the  eucharist. 

The  preaching  of  God's  word  had,  for  a  long  time 
past,  been  obscured  by  false  philosophy  and  pretended 
learning,  and  debased  by  an  admixture  of  legends  and 
fables. 

Many  new  saints  were  added  to  the  calendar  during 
this  century. 

General  corruption  of  morals  continues  to  prevail. 


Christianity  makes  little  progress  in  the  newly  disco- 
vered regions  of  Western  Africa  and  America.  Laudable 
efforts  of  the  Spanish  Bishop,  Bartholomew  de  las  Casas, 
almost  fruitless.  Low  state  of  religion  among  the  con- 
querors, and  the  cruelties  which  they  exercised,  contri- 
buted mainlv  to  this  result. 


320  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.       {Fifth 

1500  New  Persian  dynasty  founded  by  Ismael  Sopbi. 


1501 
1502 

1503 


1505 


1506 


Martin  Luther  enters  the  University  of  Erfurt. 


University  of  Wittemberg  founded. 
Revival  of  Literature  and  the  study  of  the   Classics  in 
Germany. 

Sodalitas  Literaria  Rhenana. 


Naples  under  the  power  of  Spain. 

The  pope  (Alexander)  killed  by  accidentally  taking 
poison,  which  he  had  caused  to  be  prepared  for  one  of  his 
cardinals. 

Before  the  election  of  a  new  pope,  the  cardinals  took 
an  oath,  to  the  effect  that  a  general  council  should  be 
holden  within  two  years.  And  the  same  oath  was  taken 
by  Julius  after  his  election. 

Julius  was  constantly  involved  in  wars  or  political 
intrigues,  undertaken  for  the  promotion  of  his  ambitious 
designs. 


At  the  beginning  of  this  century,  the  Moravian  Bre- 
thren possess  two  hundred  places  of  worship. 

Martin  Luther  enters  an  Augustinian  monastery  at 
Erfurt.  He  studies  the  Bible  and  writings  of  Augustin ; 
becomes  convinced  of  the  inutility  of  ascetic  exercises  for 
the  attainment  of  holiness,  and  learns  to  look  for  salvation 
by  simple,  humble,  and  devoted  faith  in  Christ.  In  these 
pursuits  he  is  supported  by  a  brother  monk,  and  by 
Staupitz,  the  general  vicar  of  his  order. 

The  animating  and  invincible  principle  of  the  Reform- 
ATION  —  the  Scriptural  truth  of  Justification  by  Free 
Grace  through  Faith  in  Christ  alone  —  begins  to 
come  into  operation. 

University  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  founded. 


Building  of  St.  Peter's  Church  at  Rome  begun   (com- 
pleted in  1614). 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.     321 

1508        League  of  Cambray.     The  pope,  the  emperor,  and  the 
king  of  France,  combine  against  Venice. 


Luther  appointed  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Wittemberg. 


1509  *  Henry  VIII.  King  of  England. 

*  Cardinal    Wolsey  in   favour  with  Henry  VIII.  and 
very  powerful  in  England. 

The  Knights  of  St.  John  (Hospitalers)  settled  in  Malta. 


Luther  appointed  Preacher  at  Wittemberg. 
Erasmus  in  Oxford. 


1510  Luther  goes  to  Pome  on  a  deputation  from  his  order. 
He  is  shocked  by  the  corruption  in  discipline  and  morals 
prevalent  at  the  papal  court;  and  more  deeply  than  ever 
impressed  with  this  great  truth, —  "  The  just  shall  live  by 
faith." 

The  pope,  having  continually  delayed  the  convening  of 
a  promised  council,  the  king  of  France,  and  afterwards 
the  emperor  Maximilian,  press  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
pledge  given,  and  threaten  to  enforce  it.  The  emperor 
afterwards  sides  with  the  pope. 

1511  This  year  a  general  council  convened  at  Pisa  by  the 
influence  of  France,  takes  measures  against  the  pope. 
Council  thinly  attended ;  transferred  to  Milan,  thence 
to  Asti,  thence  to  Lyons,  and  dissolved  next  year  without 
effect. 

The  pope  himself  takes  the  field  against  France :  lays 
the  kingdom  under  an  interdict. 

1512  The  pope  at  length  convenes  a  general  council  at  Rome 
(Late  ran). 

Luther  created  a  Doctor  in  Divinity.  He  disentangles 
himself  more  and  more  from  the  scholastic  system  ;  proclaims 
an  unusual  amount  of  scriptural  truth  in  his  sermons,  and  in 
his  lectures  on  the  Bible  and  Augustin. 

1513  The  celebrated  Cardinal,  John  Medici,  made  Pope  — 
Leo  X. :  naturally  kind  and  benevolent,  but  luxurious 
and  fond  of  pomp;  distinguished  by  his  refined  taste,  and 

Y 


322  FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII.         {Fifth 

and  his  patronage  of  arts  and  literature  ;  but  without  due 
religious  sentiment,  and  immoderate  in  his  extortion  for 
the  sake  of  supporting  his  prodigal  expenses. 
1513  *  In  England  a  question  is  keenly  agitated  concerning 
the  subjection  of  ecclesiastics  to  the  common  courts  of 
law. 

Reuchlin,  having  opposed  a  plan  for  the  burning  of 
Jewish  books,  is  accused  of  heresy.     He  appeals  to  the 
pope,  who  decides  in  his  favour. 
1,514        Melanchthon  takes  part  with  Reuchlin  against  the  theo- 
logians of  Cologne. 

#  In  England  fresh  acrimony  is  given  to  the  contro- 
versy concerning  ecclesiastical  exemptions. 


1515  Louis  XII.  of  France  dies,  without  having  been  able  to 
accomplish  his  designs  against  the  Papacy  (Perdam  Ba- 
bylonis  nomen). 

Francis  I.  King  of  France. 

1516  Francis  concludes  a  Concordat  with  Leo,  repealing 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction. 

Charles   I.    King  of  Spain,  Naples,    Sicily,    and   the 
Netherlands. 


Erasmus  publishes  an  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament 
with  a  Latin  translation  —  an  improvement  upon  the  Vul- 
gate —  and  notes. 

The  monks  oppose  the  growing  taste  for  literature,  and 
Reuchlin.  Their  ignorance  exposed  by  Reuchlin's  friends 
in  the  satirical  Epistolse  Obscurorum  Virorum. 


1517        Syria  and  Egypt  in  the  power  of  the  Turks   (Selim  I. 
Sultan,  1512). 

Christianity  introduced  into  Spanish  America. 


Period. 


TO    THE    BEGINNING    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 


323 


List    of    Popes,    Patriarchs,   and  Archbishops    of 
Canterbury,  from  the  Year  1073  to  1513. 


1073. 

GREGORY  VII. 

1156 

.    Lucas  Chrysoberges.  " 

1075. 

Comus  I. 

1159 

Alexander  III.  "1  rival 
Victor  IV.          J  PoPes- 

1080. 

Clement  III. 

Antipope. 



Michael  III. 

1081. 

Eustratus  Garidas. 

1162 

*  T.  Becket. 

1084. 

Nicholas  III. 

1164. 

Paschal  III. 

1085. 

Victor  III. 

in  place  of  Victoe  IV. 

1088. 

Urban  II. 

1168. 

Calixtus  III. 

1093. 

*  Anselm. 

in  place  of  Paschal  III. 

1099. 

Paschal  II. 

1171. 

*  Richard. 

1111. 

John  IX. 

1177. 

Chariton. 

1114. 

*  Rodolph. 

1178. 

Theodosius  Borradiotes. 

1118. 

Gelasius  II. 

1181. 

Lucius  III. 

Gregory  VIII. 

1183. 

Basil  II. 

Antipope. 

1184. 

*  Baldwin. 

1119. 

Calixtus  11. 

■ 

1122. 

*  W.  Corbeih 

1185. 
1186. 

Urban  III. 
Nicetas  II. 

1124. 

HONORIUS  II. 

1187. 

Gregory  VIII. 

1130. 

Two  popes  elected  :  — • 
Innocent  11. 

Clement  III. 

1190. 

Leontius  Thootocites. 

Anacletus  II. 

1134. 
1137. 

Leo  Stypiota. 
Victor  III. 

succeeds  Anacletus. 

1191. 

Celestin  III. 

Dositheus. 

*  Reginald  Fitz-Jocelin. 

1138. 

Innocent  II. 

1193. 

George  II.  Xiphilin. 

sole  Pope. 

— 

*  Hubert  Walter. 



*  Theobald. 

1198. 

Innocent  III. 

1143. 

Celestin  II. 

— 

John  X. 



Michael  II. 

N.B 

Latin    Patriarchs   at  Constan- 

1144. 

Lucius  II. 

tinople. 

1145. 

Eugenius  III. 

1206. 

Michael  IV. 

1146. 

Comus  II. 

1207. 

*  Stephen  Langton. 

1147. 

Nicholas  IV. 

1213. 

Theodore  III. 

1151. 

Theodore  II. 

1215. 

Maximus  I. 

1153. 

Anastasius  IV. 

— 

Manuel  I. 

1154. 

Adrian  IV. 

1216. 

Honorius  III. 



Constantine  IV. 

1221. 

Germanus  II. 

Y    2 


324 


FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII. 


(Fifth 


1227.  Gregory  IX. 
1229.  *  R.  Wethershed. 
1234.  *  Edmund. 

1240.  Methodius  II. 

See  of  Constantinople  vacant. 

1241.  Celestin  IV. 
(eighteen  days).      Interregnum  of 

twenty  months. 

1243.  Innocent  IV. 

1244.  Manuel  1 L 

1245.  *  Boniface. 
1254.  Alexander  IV. 
1255-  Arsenius  I. 

1260.  Nicephorus  II. 

1261.  Urban  IV. 

1265.  Clement  IV. 

1266.  Germanus  III. 

1267.  Joseph  I. 

1268.  "j*  Clement  IV. 

No  pope  until  1271. 

1271.  Gregory  X. 

1272.  *  Robert  Kilwardy. 

1 274.  John  Beccus  or  Veccus, 
Joseph  deposed. 

1276.  Innocent  V. 

—  Adrian  V. 

—  John  XXI.  (or  XX.) 

1277.  Nicholas  III. 

1278.  *  J.  Peckham. 

1281.  Martin  IV. 

1282.  Joseph  I. 

restored. 

1283.  Gregory  II 
1285.  Honorius  IV. 

1288.  Nicholas  IV. 

1289.  Athanasius  I. 

1292.  See    of    Rome     vacant,    until 

1294. 

1293.  John  XII 

Athanasius  deposed. 

1294.  After  Celestin  V.    Boni- 

face VII. 

#  Robert  Winchelsey. 

1303.  Benedict  XL 

—  Athanasius, 

restored. 
Roman  See  vacant. 


1305.  Clement  V. 
1311.  Niphon  I. 
1313.  *  Walter  Raynold. 
1316.  John  XXII.  (XXI.) 

—  John  XIII. 
1320.   Gerasimus  I. 

See  of  Constantinople  vacant. 

1323.  Isaiah. 

1328.  *  Simon  Mepham. 

1333.  John  XIV. 

—  *  John  Strafford. 

1334.  Benedict  XII. 
1342.  Clement  VI. 
1347.  Isidore  I. 

1349.  *  Thomas  Bradwardine. 

—  *  Simon  Islip. 

1350.  Callistus  I. 
1352.  Innocent  VI. 

1354.  Philotheus, 

Callistus  deposed. 

1 355.  Callistus, 

restored. 

]  362.  Urban  V. 

—  Philotheus, 

restored. 

1366.  *  Simon  Langham. 
1368.  *  William  Wittlesey. 
1370.  Gregory  XL 

1375.  *  Simon  Sudbury. 

1376.  Macarius. 

1378.  Urban  VI.     (Rome)  and 
Clement  VII.  (Avignon). 

1379.  Nilus. 

1381.  *  William  Courteney. 
1387.  Antonius  IV. 
1389.  Boniface  IX.  (Rome). 
1394.  BenedictXIiI.( Avignon). 
1396.   Callistus  II. 

—  *  Thomas  Arundel. 
1398.  Matthew  I. 

1404.  Innocent  VII.  (Rome). 

1406.  Gregory  XII.  (Rome). 

1409.    Gregory  XII.     1  ,  , 

>- deposed. 
Benedict  XIII.  J 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation. 


1409.  Alexander  V. 
elected  by  the  Council  of  Pisa. 

(  Three  Popes  at  one  time.) 

1410.  John   XXIII.   (XXII.) 

in  the  room  of  Alexander  V. 

—      Euthymius  II. 

1414.  *  Henry  Chicheley. 

1415.  Gregory      abdicates.         John 

XXIII.  (XXII.)  deposed. 

1416.  Joseph  II. 

1417.  Martin  V.   (Rome). 
1424.  Clement VIII. (Avignon.) 
1429.    Clement  VIII.  resigns. 

Martin  V.  sole  Pope. 
1431.  Eugenius  IV. 
1440.  Metrophanes  II. 

See  of  Constantinople  vacant. 

1443.  *  John  Stafford. 
1445.    Gregory  III. 
1447.  Nicholas  V. 

See  of  Constantinople  vacant. 

1452.  *  J.  Kemp. 

1453.  Gennadius  II. 

1454.  *  Thomas  Bouchier. 


1455.  Calixtus  III. 

1457.  Isidore  II. 

1458.  Pius  II. 

—  Jehosaphat  I. 

N.  B.  Great  confusion  in  the  See  of 
Constantinople  during  the  remainder  of 
this  century.  The  following  are  the 
names  of  the  Patriarchs ;  dates  of  succes- 
sion uncertain  •  — 

Mark  I.  Maximus  II. 

Simeon.  Niphon  II 

Dionysius  I.      Maximus  III. 

Mark  II.  Joachim. 

Raphael  I.        Pachomiusl.  (•$*  1513). 

1464.  Paul  II. 

1471.  Sixtus  IV. 

1484.  Innocent  VIII. 

1486.  *  John  Morton. 

1492.  Alexander  VI. 

1501.  *  Henry  Dean. 

1503.  Pius  III. 

—  Julius  II. 

—  *  William  Warham. 
1513.  LEO  X. 

—  Theoleptus  I. 


Councils  from  the  Year  1073  to   1512. 


1073. 

Erford.        Rouen.         Poi- 

1084. 

Rome  (under  Clement). 

tiers. 

— 

Rome     (under     Gregory ; 

1074. 

Poitiers.     Rome.     Rouen. 

mutual     excommunica- 

Paris. 

tion  and  deposition). 

1075. 

Rome. 

1085. 

Rome  (under  Clement). 

— 

*  England. 

— 

Quedlinburg  (by  Gregory's 

— 

Spalatro  (on  discipline). 

party). 

1076. 

Worms.     Rome.      *  Win- 

— 

Mentz  (in   favour  of  Cle- 

chester. 

ment). 

1076, 

1077.  Dijon.      Autun. 

1087. 

Capua.     Benevento. 

1078. 

Rome.  Poitiers.  *  London. 

1089. 

Rome  (under  Urban). 

1079. 

Rome.  Toulouse.  Utrecht. 

1090. 

Toulouse. 

1080. 

Rome. 

1091. 

Leon,  in  Spain. 

■ — 

Several  in  France  and  Ger- 

1092. 

Soissons.     Etampes.    Sza- 

many. 

bolchs. 

Y    8 


326 


FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII. 


(Fifth 


1093 

Rheims. 

1125. 

— 

**  Canterbury. 

1094. 

Constance. 

1127. 

— 

Autun     (against     Philip's 

marriage). 

1128. 

— 

Rheims  (in  favour  of  Phi- 

1129. 

lip's  marriage). 

1131. 

— 

*  Rockingham  Castle. 

1134. 

1095. 

Placentia.  Clermont.  *  En- 

gland. 

1136. 

1096. 

Rouen.     Tours. 

1138. 

— 

Nimes. 

1139. 

1097. 

*  Ireland. 

1098. 

Rome.     Bari. 

1099. 

Rome  (on  discipline). 

— 

1100. 

*  Lambeth.     Poitiers. 

1140. 

1102. 

Rome. 

— 

1103. 

*  London.     Milan. 

1104. 

Rome.     Troyes.     Paris. 

1141. 

1105. 

Rome.             Quedlinburg. 

Rheims.     Florence. 

1142. 

1106. 

Poitiers. 

1143. 

1107. 

Troyes.     *  London. 

1108. 

*  London  (on  discipline). 

— 

— 

Benevento. 

1110. 

Rome.      Clermont.      Tou- 

louse. 

1144. 

1111. 

Rome  (Lateran). 

1112. 

Rome  (Lateran). 

— 

— 

Vienne. 

1145. 

— 

Jerusalem. 

1146. 

1114. 

*  Windsor. 

Leon.      Compostello     (on 

1147. 

discipline). 

1148. 

1115. 

Soissons.      Rheims.      Co- 

logne. 

1151. 

1116. 

Rome  (Lateran). 

1152. 

— 

*  Salisbury.     Dijon. 

1153. 

1117. 

Milan.     Benevento. 

1154. 

1118. 

Capua.      Rouen.     Vienne. 

1157. 

1119. 

Cologne.               Toulouse. 

Rheims. 

1159. 

1122. 

Soissons.     Worms. 

1160. 

1123. 

Lateran  I. — The  Ninth 

1161. 

General.  (On  discipline.) 

1162. 

3124. 

Several  in  France. 

1163. 

,  *  Westminster    (on   disci- 
pline). 

*  Westminster  (reforma- 
tion of  manners). 

Troyes.     Rouen. 

*  London. 
Rheims. 
Pisa      (under      Innocent ; 

against  Anacletus). 

*  London.  *  Northampton. 

*  London  (on  discipline). 
Lateran    II.     —     The 

Tenth  General.  (Re- 
union of  the  Church.)  j 

*  Winchester. 
Constantinople. 
Sens  (against  the  opinions 

of  Abelard). 

*  Winchester.  Antioch. 
*  Westminster. 

*  London. 
Constantinople    (Bogomili 

condemned). 

Jerusalem  (concerning  the 
tenets  of  the  Arme- 
nians). 

Constantinople  (against 
Niphon). 

Rome. 

Bourges  (Crusade). 

Vezelai  (Crusade). 

Constantinople.  Paris. 

Treves. 

Rheims.  Bamberg.  (Mat- 
ters of  faith). 

*  London  (on  discipline). 

*  Ireland. 
Worms.     Constance. 

*  London. 
Kiev.  Constantinople. 

Rheims. 
Mentz. 

Pavia.  Anagni.    *  Oxford. 
Toulouse.  Lodi.  Beauvais. 

*  Westminster. 
Tours  (on  discipline). 


Period.)         to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation.   327 


1164. 

1165. 
1166. 


1169. 
1170. 
1171. 
1172. 
1173. 
1175. 
1176. 
1177. 


1179. 


1180. 
1182. 
1184. 

1185. 
1186. 

1188. 

1189. 
1190. 

1193. 
1195. 
1196. 
1197. 

1199. 
1200. 
1201. 
1205. 
1206. 
1209. 
1210. 
1211. 


*  Clarendon.  Rheims. 

*  Northampton. 
Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Constantinople     (doctrine 

and  discipline). 

*  London. 
Kiev. 
Constantinople. 

*  Armagh.     *  Cashel. 
Avranches. 

*  Westminster. 

*  London  (on  discipline). 

*  Northampton.  *  London. 

*  Northampton. 
Conference  at  Tarsus  (for 

re-union  of  the  Arme- 
nians and  Greeks). 

Lateran  III. — The  Ele- 
venth General.  (On 
discipline). 

Tarragona. 

Limoges  (on  discipline). 

Verona  (against  heretics, 
&c). 

Paris.     *  London. 

*  Ireland   (reformation   of 

the  clergy). 

Several  councils  for  the 
promotion  of  Crusades. 

Rouen  (on  discipline. 

Narbonne  (Waldenses  con- 
demned). 

*  Canterbury. 

*  York. 
Paris. 

Lanciski,in  Poland  (against 
marriage  of  the  clergy). 
Dijon. 

Vienne.  *  London. 
Soissons.  *  Perth. 
Aries. 

*  Lambeth  (on  discipline). 
Avignon  (on  discipline). 
Paris.     Rome. 
Narbonne.     Aries. 


1212. 
1213. 
1215. 


1216. 
1222. 


1223. 
1224. 
1225. 

1226. 
1226. 

1227. 

1228. 
1229. 

1230. 
1231. 
1232. 
1233. 


1234. 
1235. 

1236 
1237. 
1238. 
1239. 

1241. 
1242. 
1244. 
1245. 


1246. 

1247. 
1248. 


*  Northampton.     Paris. 

*  St.  Alban's. 
Lateran    IV.    —     The 

Twelfth        General. 
(Doctrine  and  discipline). 

*  Bristol. 

*  Oxford 

Sleswic  (celibacy  of  clergy). 
Constantinople. 
Rouen.     Paris. 
Montpellier. 

Paris.  Melun.  Bourges. 
Mentz. 

*  Westminster.     Paris. 
Cremona. 

*  Scotland  (on  discipline). 
Treves.  Narbonne.  Rome. 
Rome. 

Paris.  Lerida.  *  West- 
minster.    Toulouse. 

Tarragona. 

Rouen.     Castle  Gontier. 

Nicaea.     *  London. 

Several  in  France. 

Mentz  (against  Stedin- 
gians). 

Beziers.     Aries. 

Narbonne.  Rheims.  Com- 
piegne.     Senlis. 

Tours  (in  favour  of  Jews). 

Lerida.     *  London. 

Cognac.  *  London.  Treves. 

Tarragona.  Tours.  St. 
Quintin.     Sens. 

*  Oxford. 

Tarragona. 

Tarragona.     *  London. 

Lyons.  —  The  Thir- 
teenth General.  (Em- 
peror Frederic  deposed.) 

Beziers.    Fritzlar.    Lerida. 

*  London. 
Tarragona. 
Tarragona. 

Valence. 


Paris.  Breslau. 


y  4 


328 


FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF    GREGORY  VII. 


(Fifth 


1253. 

Tarragona.     Ravenna. 

1286. 

1254. 

Castle  Gontier. 

1255. 

*  London.       Albi.       Bor- 
deaux. 

1287. 

1256. 

Paris.     Sens. 

1291. 

1257. 

*  London. 

1258. 

*  Merton. 

1292. 

1259. 

Mentz  (on  discipline). 

1260. 

Cognac  (on  discipline). 

1260. 

Cologne. 

1294. 

1261. 

Aries.     Cologne.     Paris. 

1297. 

*  London.     Mentz. 

1299. 

1262. 

*  Ireland.     Cognac. 

1300. 

1263. 

Paris. 

1301. 

1264. 

Nantes.     Paris.     Bologna. 

— 

1265. 

(or  1266.)  *  Northampton. 

1302. 

1266. 

Bremen. 

1303. 

1267. 

Vienna. 

1305. 

1268. 

Breslau.  *  London.  Castle 
Gontier. 

1307. 

1269. 

Sens  (on  discipline). 

1270. 

Compiegne    (Church   pro- 
perty). 
Avignon. 

1309- 

1274. 

Lyons.  —  The        Four- 
teenth General. 

1275. 

Aries  (on  discipline). 
Constantinople. 

1276. 

Bourges. 

1311. 

1277. 

Constantinople  (concerning 
the  union  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Churches). 

1279. 

Beziers.     Avignon.     (Ec- 

1313. 

clesiastical       privileges 

1314. 

and  property.) 

— 

*  Reading. 

1315. 

1280. 

Bourges.     Constantinople. 

1281. 

Cologne.  Saltzburg.  Lam- 

1316. 

***** 

beth. 

1317. 

1281. 

Paris. 

1282. 

*  London.         Tarragona. 

1318. 

Avignon.  Tours.  Aqui- 

— 

leia. 

1320. 

1283. 

Constantinople. 

1285. 

Constantinople. 

1321. 

*  London.  Ravenna.  Ma- 
con.    Bourges. 

*  Exeter.  Milan.  Saltz- 
burg. 

Saltzburg.    Milan.   *  Lon- 
don. 
Tarragona.  Bremen. 

*  Chichester.  Aschaf- 
fenburg. 

Saumur.     Tarragona. 

*  London.  Constantinople. 
Rouen  (on  discipline). 

*  Canterbury.     *  Merton. 

Melun  (on  discipline). 

Rheims. 

Paris.     Rheims.     Rome. 

Paris.    Nogaro.    Cambray. 

Tarragona.     *  London. 

Aquileia.  Cologne.  Tar- 
ragona. Sisa,  in  Arme- 
nia Minor. 

-1311.  Presburg.  Mentz. 
Cologne  (against  con- 
cubinage of  the  clergy). 
Ravenna.  Paris.  Mentz. 

*  London.  Salamanca 
(concerning  the  Tem- 
plars). 

Vienne. — The  Fifteenth 
General.  (On  doctrine 
and  discipline;  order  of 
Templars  suppressed.) 

Magdeburg. 

Paris.  Ravenna  (on  dis- 
cipline.) 

Saumur.  Nogaro  (on  dis- 
cipline). 

Adan,  in  Armenia. 

Tarragona.  Ravenna  (on 
discipline). 

Senlis  (Church  property). 

Saragossa. 

Sens.     Halle 
pline). 

*  London. 


o 


disci- 


Period.)       to  the  beginning  of  the  reformation. 


329 


1322. 

Valladolid.       Magdeburg. 

1398.   Paris. 

Cologne. 

1401.  *  London  (against  Wick- 

1324. 

Paris.     Toledo. 

liffites). 

1326. 

Avignon.  Senlis.  Marciac. 

1404.  Paris. 

1329. 

*  London.        Compiegne. 

1406.  Hamburg. 

Paris. 

—     Paris. 

1330. 

*  Lambeth.      Kherna,    in 

1408.  Rheims.  *  London.  Paris. 

Armenia. 

Perpignan. 

1335. 

Salamanca.      Pre  (on  dis- 

1409. Frankfort.  *  Oxford.  Flo- 

cipline). 

rence.    Pisa.    Aquileia. 

1336. 

Bourges.     Castle  Gontier. 

1410.   Salamanca. 

1337. 

Avignon.     Treves. 

1412,  1413.  Rome. 

1339. 

Toledo. 

1413.  *  London. 

1340. 

Nicosia,  in  Cyprus. 

1414  until  1418.    Constance 

1341. 

Constantinople.   *  Canter- 

The       Seventeenth 

bury. 

General. 

1342. 

Saumur.     *  London. 

1421.  Prague. 

1343. 

*  London. 

1423.  Pavia,  and  Sienna.  Treves. 

1344. 

Magdeburg.     Noyon. 

1429.  Riga.     Paris.     Tortosa. 

1345. 

Armenia.    Constantinople. 

1430.  Aschaffenburg. 

1347. 

Paris.    Toledo.    Constanti- 

1431. Nantes. 

nople. 

1431.  Council  of  Basle  meets. — 

1350. 

Padua. 

The  Eighteenth  Ge- 

1351. 

*  Dublin.     Beziers. 

neral.      (Re-union  of 

1355. 

Prague.     Toledo. 

the  Greek  and  Roman 

1356. 

*  London. 

Churches ;  ecclesiastical 

1366. 

Angers, 

reformation.) 

1367. 

*  York. 

1438.  Ferrara. 

1368. 

Upsala.     Lavaur. 

1439.  Florence. 

1370. 

Magdeburg. 

—     Mentz. 

1374. 

Narbonne. 

1440.  Bourges. 

1379. 

Salamanca. 

1441.  Mentz. 

1382. 

*  London.             *  Oxford 

1445.  Rouen. 

(against  the  Wickliffites, 

1448.  Angers. 

or  Lollards). 

1449.  Lausanne. 

1383. 

Cambray. 

1450.  Constantinople. 

1386. 

Saltzburg  (on  discipline). 

1452.  Cologne.     Magdeburg. 

1387. 

Mentz. 

1453.  *  Cashel. 

1388. 

Valentia.     Palermo, 

1454.  *  Canterbury. 

1390. 

Cologne. 

1455  Aschaffenburg.     Soissons. 

1391. 

*  London. 

1457.  Avignon. 

1392. 

Prague. 

1473.  Madrid.     Toledo. 

1395. 

Paris. 

1485.  Sens. 

1397. 

*  London  (against  Wick- 

1486. *  London. 

liffites). 

1490.  Saltzburg. 

330        FROM    THE    ACCESSION    OF  GREGORY  VII.  ETC.    (Period  V.) 

1492.  Moscow.  the   pope),    transferred 

1494.  Nitra,  in  Hungary.  to     Milan,    thence    to 

1503.  Moscow.  Lyons. 

1510.  Orleans.     Tours.  1512.  Lateran  (against  the  Coun- 

1511.  Pisa  (by  the  cardinals  and  cilofPisa). 

king  of  France  against 


END    OF    THE    FIFTH  PERIOD. 


PERIOD   VI. 

ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 

1517—1555. 


1517  (Maximilian  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

*  Henry  VIII.  King  of  England. 
Francis  I.  King  of  France. 
Charles  I.  King  of  Spain.) 

March  16. — The  Lateran  Council  dissolved  in  its  twelfth 
session,  having  condemned  the  principles  maintained  by 
the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle,  and  established  afresh 
the  absolute  sovereignty  of  the  pope.  But  this  triumph 
of  the  Papacy  was  more  apparent  than  real. 

Shameless  sale  of  Indulgences  in  Germany  by  Tetzel,  a 
Dominican,  under  Albert,  Elector  of  Mentz  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Magdeburg.  Luther  preaches  and  protests 
against  the  evil  effects  of  this  traffic,  which  had  interfered 
with  the  exercise  of  his  ministry. 

October  SI. —  Luther  publishes  ninety-five  TJieses,  against 
abuses  connected  with  the  doctrine  of  Indulgences,  and 
challenges  disputants. 

No  direct  opposition  to  Rome ;  but  fundamental  prin- 
ciples asserted  concerning  repentance,  pardon,  and  sancti- 
fication,  which  form  the  basis  of  Christian  doctrine  as 
distinguished  from  the  prevalent  superstition. 


Erasmus  publishes  his  Paraphrase  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans. 


332  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

1518        Another  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  German,  from 
the  Vulgate. 

Melanchthon,  Professor  of  Greek  at  Wittemberg. 


Luther  addresses  a  letter  to  the  pope ;  is  summoned  to 
appear  before  Cardinal  Cajeta.n,  pope's  legate,  at  Augsburg. 
Cajetan,  after  several  conferences,  persists  in  demanding 
nothing  less  than  a  recantation:  Luther  refuses,  and 
appeals  a  papa  male  informato  ad  papam  melius  infor- 
mandum. 

Nov.  9. — A  bull,  confirming  the  doctrine  of  Indulgences, 
and  forbidding  all  persons  to  dispute  against  it,  under 
penalty  of  excommunication. 


1519        Death  of  the  emperor  Maximilian.      Frederic,  Elector 
of  Saxony,   Regent  of  the  empire.     Charles  I.   King  of 
Spain,  elected,  under  the  title  of 
Charles  V.  Emperor  of  Germany  (crowned  in  1520). 


January.  —  Conference  of  Luther  ivith  Miltitz. 

March  3. —  Luther's  explanatory  letter  to  the  pope,  ac- 
knowledging his  authority,  and  professing  respect  for  the 
Romish  Church,  but  absolutely  maintaining  the  doctrine 
of  justification  by  grace  through  faith,  and  the  absence 
of  all  merit  in  good  works. 

June  27.  —  Disputation  at  Leipsic, 
between  Eck  on  the  one  side,  and  Carlstadt  and  Luther 
on  the  other.    Luther  denies  divine  right  of  the  pope's  su- 
premacy.   From  this  time  we  may  date  his  systematic  and 
growing  opposition  to  the  Papacy. 

Melanchthon  present  at  this  disputation  ;  an  impartial 
account  of  which  he  transmits  to  his  friend  CEcolampadius, 
at  Basle.  Afterwards  Melanchthon  begins  to  take  part  in 
the  controversy. 

Luther  publishes  his  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Galatians. 

Ulrich  Zwingle,  at  Zurich,  after  a  calm  and  thorough 
study  of  Scripture,  shocked  at  the  sale  of  Indulgences  by 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  333 

Bernardin  Samson,  appears  in  the  character  of  a  Reformer, 
denouncing  ecclesiastical  abuses,  and  teaching  a  purer 
doctrine  than  that  which  prevailed  in  the  dominant 
church.  The  Council  of  Zurich  commands  all  preachers 
to  teach  the  pure  word  of  God,  according  to  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, and  to  refrain  from  human  additions. 


1520  Increasing  jealousy  between  Spain  and  France. 

Leo  attaches  himself  to  the  cause  of  the  Emperor. 


June.  —  Luther  publishes  an  address  to  the  Emperor  and 
the  Christian  Nobility  of  the  German  nation. 

Bull  against  Luther  and  his  writings  first  pub- 
lished in  August  by  Eck. 

August. — Luther's  treatise,  "  On  the  Babylonian  Captivity 
of  the  Church."  In  this  book,  Luther  not  only  exposed 
the  outward  abuses  of  the  Church,  the  system  of  the 
Papacy,  Monachism,  &c,  but  also  denounced  the  more 
deeply-seated  errors  of  doctrine,  especially  Transubstantia- 
tion,  and  other  errors  connected  with  the  sacraments. 

Luther  now  denounces  the  Papacy  as  the  King- 
dom of  Babylon,  and  Antichrist. 

October.  —  Conference  of  Miltitz  with  Luther,  in  hope 
of  effecting  a  reconciliation.  Luther's  treatise  on  Christ- 
ian Liberty,  and  Letter  to  the  Pope. 

December.  —  Frederick,  Elector  of  Saxony,  consults 
Erasmus  respecting  the  doctrine  and  proceedings  of 
Luther.  Erasmus  applauds  Luther's  good  intentions,  but 
laments  his  want  of  moderation.  "Lutherus,"  said  he, 
"  peccat  in  duobus ;  nempe  quod  tetigit  coronam  ponti- 
ficis,  et  ventres  monachorum." 

Some  Lutheran  preachers  in  Poland. 


Complutensian  Bible  of  Cardinal  Ximenes  published. 


End  of  the  First  Period  in  the  History  of 
the  German  Reformation. 


334  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

1521         Soliman  II.  the  Turkish  Sultan,  captures  Belgrade. 
Francis  Sforza,  Duke  of  Milan. 
First  war  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
The  pope  in  alliance  with  the  emperor. 


April.  —  Luther,  before  the  Diet  of  Worms,  re- 
fuses to  retract  his  doctrine,  until  convinced  of  error  by 
proofs  from  Scripture. 

May.  —  Edict  of  Worms, 
commanding   the  apprehension    of  Luther,  and  the  de- 
struction of  his  writings. 

Luther  conveyed  to  Wartburg,  under  the  protection 
of  Frederick.  Here  he  begins  his  Translation  of  the 
Bible  into  German;  completing  that  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment :  —  a  most  important  work  for  the  interests  of 
religion,  and  the  promotion  of  real  Reformation.  Here, 
also,  he  matures  his  opinions  concerning  the  nature  and 
constitution  of  the  Church. 

Melanchthon  publishes  his  Loci  Communes,  a  system- 
atic exposition  of  Luther's  doctrine. 

*  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  publishes  a  Defence  of  the 
doctrine  of  Seven  Sacraments,  against  Luther.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  Leo  declares  the  king  "  Defender  of  the 
Faith." 

George,  Duke  of  Saxony,  persecutes  the  followers  of 
Luther. 

Erasmus  endeavours  to  pursue  a  middle  course  between 
the  Romanists  and  the  friends  of  Luther.  Both  parties 
dissatisfied  with  him.  The  Romanists  accuse  him  of  bein£ 
a  secret  favourer  of  the  opposition  made  to  the  Papacy ; 
while  the  Reformers  charge  him  with  lukewarmness. 
Hutten  writes  against  him ;  Erasmus  replies. 

The  principles  of  Reformation  find  entrance  into 
Denmark ;  also  into  France,  where  they  are  condemned 
by  the  Sorbonne ;  and  into  Transylvania. 

Reformation  advances  in  Switzerland. 

Ignatius  Loyola  wounded  in  battle.  During  the  pro- 
gress of  his  cure,  he  imbibes  the  principles  of  religious 
asceticism. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation*.  335 

1521  Erasmus  settles  at  Basle. 

University  of  Geneva  founded. 


Rhodes  captured  by  the  Turks. 
Roman  Catholic  Missions  to  the  East  Indies, 


The  pope  sends  Cheregati  as  his  nuncio  to  the  Diet  of 
Nuremberg;  demands  the  fulfilment  of  the  Edict  of 
Worms,  and  the  assistance  of  the  German  princes  against 
Luther  and  his  friends.  Confesses  the  existence  of  abuses 
and  corrupt  morals  in  the  Church  and  court  of  Rome ; 
and  promises  to  use  his  utmost  efforts  for  the  correction  of 
these  disorders.  The  diet  demands  the  assembling  of  a 
general  council  for  the  discussion  of  religious  differences, 
and  transmits  to  Rome  a  list  of  grievances. 

Disorders  at  Wittemberg. —  Hasty  changes  in  the  manner 
of  celebrating  divine  worship,  &c.  promoted  by  Carlstadt. 
Fanatics  of  Zwickaw.  Luther  writes,  and  then  returns 
to  Wittemberg.  By  his  sermons  and  influence  he  restores 
moderation  and  peace. 

September.  —  Luther's  New  Testament  published  at  Wit- 
temberg. 

Luther  writes  against  Henry  VIII.  of  England. 


*j*   John    Reuchlin    (Capnio).     A    great    promoter   of 
learning,  especially  of  the  study  of  Hebrew. 


Knights  of  St.  John  obliged  to  surrender  Rhodes  to 
Soliman. 

Gustavus  Vasa,  King  of  Sweden. 

Charles,  occupied  in  the  pursuits  of  ambition,  and  en- 
gaged in  war  with  France  and  the  Turks,  pays  little 
regard  to  the  affairs  of  religion  in  his  empire,  except  so 
far  as  they  affect  his  political  interests. 

Popular  misconceptions  of  Luther's  doctrines  respecting 
Christian  liberty.  Munzer,  at  the  head  of  a  party  of 
fanatics,  inveighs  against  Luther,  and  excites  the  popu- 
lace to  violence.  Insurrection  of  the  Peasants  in  Germany 
begins.     Munzer  at  Mulhausen. 


336  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

1523  Public  disputation  at  Zurich,  between  Zvvingle  and  the 
Romanists  (Faber  of  Constance,  and  others).  The  coun- 
cil supports  Zwingle  in  preaching  the  pure  word  of  God, 
and  forbids  preachers  to  advance  any  thing  which  may 
not  be  proved  from  Scripture. 

Zwingle's  "Short  and  Christian  Introduction  to  the 
Doctrine  of  the  Gospel." 

In  Sweden,  Gustavus  Vasa  favours  the  doctrines  of 
Reformation  ;  and  in  Denmark  they  are  supported  by 
Frederick. 

Reformation  had  now  made  progress  in  the  Nether- 
lands, 

Erasmus  completes  his  Paraphrase  of  the  New  Testament. 
A  Dutch  translation  of  the  Bible. 


Ignatius  Loyola  undertakes  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine. 


152  h  Clement  engages  in  the  interests  of  France. 


Reformation  makes  great  progress  in  Switzerland.  Many 
superstitious  ceremonies  and  customs  abolished.  CEcolam- 
padius  at  Basle.  William  Farel.  Several  cantons  oppose 
the  Reformation. 

Sweden  and  Denmark  profess  the  reformed  faith.  The 
doctrines  of  Luther  gain  ground  in  Prussia,  and  are  intro- 
duced into  Scotland. 

Luther  abandons  the  monastic  life.  His  monastery  is 
now  deserted,  and  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  elector. 

Diet  of  Nuremberg,  attended  by  Cardinal  Campeggio  as 
pope's  legate,  promises  to  carry  into  effect  the  Edict  of 
Worms  as  far  as  possible,  but  persists  in  demanding  a 
general  council. 

Campeggio  endeavours  to  form  a  confederacy  of  Ger- 
man princes  in  favour  of  the  pope  and  Church  of  Rome. 
At  Ratisbon,  he  brings  about  a  league  between  several 
princes  and  bishops^  who  bind  themselves  to  support  each 
other  in  efforts  to  uphold  the  Romish  doctrines  and  cere- 
monies, and  in  checking  the  progress  of  Luther's  opi- 
nions.    First  League  of  German  princes. 


Period,)  era  of  the  reformation.  337 

Beginning  of  the  Sacramental  Controversy.  Luther 
engages  in  controversy  with  Carlstadt :  Luther  maintain- 
ing the  real  corporeal  presence  of  Christ  in,  with,  and 
under,  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  supper  (as  fire  is  in 
heated  iron),  Consubstantiation  ;  Carlstadt  maintaining  that 
the  Lord's  supper  is  only  a  commemoration  of  our 
Saviour's  sacrifice. 

Carlstadt  removes  to  Strasburg.  Wolfgang  Fabricius 
Capito  and  Martin  Bucer,  two  preachers  of  that  place, 
adopt  his  sentiments. 


Erasmus  refutes  the  allegations  of  those  who  had 
accused  him  of  maintaining  a  secret  understanding  with 
Luther,  by  publishing  a  treatise  entitled,  Diatribe  de 
Liber o  Arbitrio  (of  Semipelagian  tendency),  in  opposition 
to  the  reformer's  sentiments  (which  were  in  accordance 
with  the  Augustinian  scheme  of  predestination). 


Melanehthon,  Professor  of  Theology  at  Wittemburg. 
f  John  Staupitz. 
First  Danish  translation  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  study   of  Scripture   and  Greek  literature  begin  to 
flourish  in  England. 

Loyola  studies  at  Barcelona,  He  reads  assiduously 
Thomas  a  Kempis's  Imitation  of  Christ. 

Order  of  Theatines  founded  (Clerici  Regulares  ;  against 
heresy). 

Battle  of  Pavia.     Francis  in  the  power  of  Charles. 
The  Pope  obliged  to  take  part  with  Charles. 
Frederic  the  Wise,  Elector  of  Saxony,  died  this  year. 
He  was   succeeded   by  John,  who  gave   the  Reformation 
decided  support. 

A  manifesto  published,  containing  the  Claims  of  the  Pea- 
sants. Luther's  exhortation  to  peace.  The  insurrection 
becomes  general.  Luther  writes  Against  the  Plundering 
and  Murderous  Peasants.  Defeat  of  the  insurgents  at 
Frankenhausen.     Munzer  beheaded.     End  of  the  revolt. 

z 


838  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

15Q5  At  Zurich,  the  celebration  of  the  Lords  supper  is  en- 
tirely substituted  for  the  pretended  sacrifice  of  the  mass. 
Use  of  pictures  and  images  in  churches  discontinued. 
Even  organs  and  bells  silenced.  Attempt  to  separate 
spiritual  religion,  as  far  as  possible,  from  every  thing 
outward,  visible,  and  sensible. 

Zwingle  teaches  that  the  Lord's  supper  is  a  symbol- 
ical commemoration  of  the  one  meritorious  sacrifice  of 
Christ,  agreeing  nearly  with  Carlstadt  and  Luther's 
other  opponents.  John  Bugenhagen  (Pomeranus),  of 
Wittemberg,  defends  Luther's  doctrine  in  reply.  QEco- 
lampadius,  at  Basle,  advocates  similar  sentiments.  The 
controversy  continues. 

The  title  of  Evangelical  first  assumed  by  the  Land- 
grave of  Hesse. 

Luther  marries  Catharine  de  Bora. 

Many  Lutherans  condemned  as  heretics,  and  burnt,  in 
various  parts  of  Germany,  about  this  time.  Persecution 
carried  on,  especially  under  the  auspices  of  the  archduke 
of  Austria,  and  the  dukes  of  Saxony  and  Brunswick. 


Luther's  treatise,  De  Servo  Arbitrio,  in  answer  to 
Erasmus.  Zwingle,  Commentarius  De  Vera  et  Falsa  Re- 
ligione.  Eck,  Enchiridion  Locorum  Communium  adversus 
Lutherum. 

Order  of  Capuchins,  a  kind  of  Franciscans,  or  Minorites, 
takes  its  rise. 

1526        The  pope  combines  with  France,  Venice,  and  Milan, 
against  the  emperor  (Holy  League). 


At  Torgau,  Philip,  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  John, 
Elector  of  Saxony,  agree  to  support  each  other  in  the 
preservation  of  their  rights,  and  in  resisting  any  attack 
upon  the  free  exercise  of  reformed  religion  in  their 
dominions.  In  the  course  of  the  year,  several  other 
princes  joined  their  league  at  Magdeburg. 

October.  —  Conference  between  Romanists  and  Reformers 
at  Homburg. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  339 

Reformation  established  in  Prussia. 


Luther's  German  Liturgy  and  Order  of  Divine  Worship. 

Loyola  repairs  to  the  University  of  Complutum.  His 
zeal  in  religious  exercises,  and  in  giving  instruction,  ex- 
cites the  jealousy  of  the  Inquisition,  and  exposes  him  to 
persecution. 

*  Tyndal's  English  Translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
(t  Pomponazzi,  an  Aristotelian  philosopher.) 

Second  War  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
Rome  plundered,  and  the  pope  taken  prisoner  by  the 
imperial  forces.     The  pope  purchases  his  liberty. 

January.  —  Another  conference  at  M arpurg. 

The  landgrave  of  Hesse  and  elector  of  Saxony  take 
arms,  upon  report  of  a  league  between  Roman  Catholic 
princes  for  the  extirpation  of  the  reformed  religion. 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  refuse  to  sanction  these  proceed- 
ings. Existence  of  the  league  denied ;  and  the  forces 
disbanded.  This  circumstance  gave  to  the  work  of  Reform- 
ation too  much  of  a  political  and  aggressive  character. 

Many  writings  of  the  Reformers  translated  and  cir- 
culated in  Italy.  Their  doctrines  met  with  no  inconsider- 
able acceptance. 

#  Henry  VIII.  of  England  desires  to  obtain  a  divorce 
from  his  queen  Catharine.  Proposals  for  divorce  made 
to  the  court  of  Rome  during  the  detention  of  Clement. 

Alliance  of  the  seven  Roman  Catholic  cantons  of  Switz- 
erland. 

The  Vatican  Library  in  ruins.  University  of  Mar- 
purg  founded. 

t  Jerome  Emser,  R.  C. 

N.B.  From  this  date,  writers  of  the  several  different 
churches  will  usually  be  distinguished  by  capital  letters 
affixed  to  their  names  in  the  obituary,  thus,  —  L.  denotes 
Lutheran;  R.  Reformed;  R.  C.  Roman  Catholic;  but 
members  of  our  own  church  will  be  distinguished  by  the 
asterisk,  which  has  been  used  throughout  the  work  as  de- 
noting reference  to  British  history. 

z  2 


3-*0  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 


15€8 


1529 


Visitation  of  the  Churches  in  Saxony.  Melanchthon's 
"  Instructions/'  or  "  Visitation  Articles." 

Reformation  established  in  many  towns  and  provinces 
of  Germany  and  Switzerland  (Haller,  at  Berne;  Viret, 
at  Lausanne;  Farel,  in  various  parts  of  Switzerland). 

*  Reformation  in  Scotland  begins.  Martyrdom  of 
Patrick  Hamilton,  burnt  at  St.  Andrew's. 

Sacramental  Controversy.  Luther's  doctrine  of  the  eu- 
charist  condemned  by  an  assembly  of  Swiss  divines  at 
Berne. 

Jerome  Aurelian,  a  Venetian,  founds  the  order  of 
Somaschi,  a  kind  of  regular  clergy. 

Loyola  repairs  to  Paris,  to  study  theology. 
Order  of  Capuchins  confirmed  by  Pope  Clement  VIII. 

The  emperor  and  the  elector  of  Saxony  give  their  sanc- 
tion to  violent  measures  against  the  Anabaptists  of 
Germany. 

Soliman  II.  invades  Hungary,  and  advances  to  Vienna. 
Peace  of  Cambray,  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 
Clement  reconciled  to  the  emperor,  who  promises  to 
exert  himself  for  suppression  of  heresy. 

Roman  Catholic  Missions  to  Japan. 

Hie  Diet  of  Spires  decrees  that  the  Edict  of  Worms 
should  be  strictly  enforced  in  all  countries  where  it  had 
been  already  received,  but  that  where  the  evangelical 
doctrines  had  been  adopted,  so  that  they  could  not  be  ex- 
tirpated without  commotion,  it  should  be  sufficient  to  pro- 
hibit further  changes  until  a  general  council  should  be 
held.  The  diet  also  determines  to  suppress  the  doctrines 
of  Sacramentarians  and  Anabaptists,  to  protect  the  cele- 
bration of  mass  where  desired,  and  to  impose  upon 
preachers  the  condition  that  they  should  preach  the  Gospel 
only  in  the  sense  approved  by  the  Church.  The  evan- 
gelical princes  sent  (April  19.)  a  Protest  against  this 
Decision,  to  which  they  added  (April  25.)  an  Appeal 
to  the  emperor,  to  a  general  or  national  council,  and  to 
every  impartial  Christian  judge. 


Period,)  era  of  the  reformation.  341 

15^9  Origin  of  the  Name  Protestants. 

The  elector  of  Hesse  urges  violent  measures ;  Luther 
and  others  remonstrate. 

The  emperor  rejects  the  Protest  and  Appeal. 
Meeting  at   Smalcald,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a 
Protestant  confederacy ;  without  effect. 

June  29.  —  The  emperor,  in  a  treaty  with  the  pope,  un- 
dertakes "  to  bring  back  the  heretics  in  Germany  to  their 
obedience  to  the  Roman  See." 

October  1,  2,  3.  —  Conference  at  Marpurg,  between  the 
Saxon  and  Swiss  divines.  Differences  respecting  the 
doctrines  of  the  eucharist  continue,  but  with  the  under- 
standing that  such  differences  shall  not  be  a  bar  to  union 
in  the  common  cause  of  the  Gospel. 

Reformation  completed  at  Basle  (CEcolampadius) . 
Luther's  Catechisms. 

*  Trial  concerning  Henry's  divorce  before  Campeggio, 
pope's  legate  in  England.  Cause  transferred  to  Rome. 
Fall  of  Cardinal  Wolsey. 

*  Cardinal  Beaton,  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's,  perse- 
cutes the  Reformers  in  Scotland.  Violent  persecutions 
in  the  Low  Countries  and  France. 


Hetzer,  L.,  who  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  Anabaptists,  beheaded  at  Constance 
for  polygamy  and  adultery. 

Various  fanatical  sects  in  the  Low  Countries.  Mel- 
chior  Hofmann,  founder  of  a  sect  of  Anabaptists. 


1530  Charles  V.  crowned  by  the  Pope  at  Bologna.  Last  in- 
stance of  the  coronation  of  a  German  emperor  by  the 
pope. 

The  Knights  of  St,  John  receive  a  grant  of  Malta  from 
the  emperor. 

Articles  of  Torgau  (a  statement  of  the  leading  articles 
of  Christian  faith  presented  by  Luther  and  his  friends  to 
the  elector  of  Saxony  at  Torgau,  before  the  assembling  of 
the  diet). 

z  3 


342  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

1530  Diet  of  Augsburg.  —  June  25.  Protestants  present  and 
read  a  confession  or  summary  of  faith,  drawn  up  by  Me- 
lanchthon,  on  the  basis  of  the  articles  of  Torgau,  the  ce- 
lebrated CONFESSION  OF  AUGSBURG.  August  13. 
Romanists  present  a  Confutation  of  the  Confession,  with 
which  the  emperor  declares  himself  satisfied,  and  demands 
the  assent  and  acquiescence  of  the  Protestant  members  of 
the  diet,  which  they  refuse.  August.  Conferences  between 
the  two  parties;  without  effect.  Protestants  finally  ap- 
peal to  the  decision  of  a  free  general  council.  Melanchthon 
publishes  a  Defence  of  the  Apology. 

Tetrapolitan  Confession,  presented  by  the  cities  of 
Strasburg,  Constance,  Memmingen,  and  Landau. 

Sept.  22. — A  decree  of  the  diet  allows  Protestants  time 
(until  the  15th  of  April  following)  to  deliberate  concern- 
ing conformity  to  the  Church  ;  requiring  them,  in  the 
interval,  to  make  no  further  innovations,  and  to  aid  in 
suppressing  the  errors  of  the  Zwinglians  and  Anabaptists, 
with  a  promise  on  the  part  of  the  emperor  to  solicit  the 
pope  to  convene  a  general  council  within  six  months. 

Nov.  19.- — Final  decree,  censuring  the  changes  which  had 
been  partially  introduced ;  giving  new  force  to  the  Edict 
of  Worms  ;  requiring  all  who  had  withdrawn  allegiance 
from  the  See  of  Rome  to  acknowledge  its  authority,  on 
pain  of  incurring  the  displeasure  and  vengeance  of  the 
emperor.  Indefinite  promise  of  a  general  council  re- 
peated. 

*  An  appeal  had  been  made  from  the  authority  of  the 
pope  to  the  opinions  of  the  universities,  relating  to 
Henry's  divorce,  probably  at  the  suggestion  of  Cranmer. 
Their  decisions  affirm  the  illegality  of  the  marriage.  The 
clergy,  in  convocation,  acknowledge  Henry  as  Supreme 
Head  of  the  English  Church. 

Conferences  between  Roman  Catholics  and  Reformers 
in  Denmark. 


Order  of  Barnabites    founded    (confirmed    in    1532; 
denominated,  since  1535,  Clerici  Regulares  S.  Pauli). 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  343 

1530 


1531 


1532 


Luther's  Admonition  to  the  Ecclesiastics.    Admonition 
to  the  Germans. 


Protestant  League  of  Smalcald. 
Evangelical  doctrines  propagated  in  Hungary. 
Religious  war  in  Switzerland.     Peace;   on  condition 
that  each  canton  shall  be  independent  of  the  others  in 
matters  of  religion. 

Bullinger,  Zwingle's  successor,  completes  the  establish- 
ment of  a  reformed  discipline  and  worship  in  Zurich. 


Michael  Serve tus  publishes  his  treatise   De  Trinitatis 
Erroribus. 

°|*  Zwingle  and  (Ecolampadius* 


John  Frederic,  Elector  of  Saxony ;  zealous  in  the  cause 
of  the  Reformation. 

The  emperor  and  states  of  Germany  continue  their 
solicitations  to  the  pope  for  the  assembling  of  a  general 
council. 

Pacification  of  Nuremberg ;  a  treaty  between  the  em- 
peror and  Protestants. 

Sale  of  Indulgences  at  Geneva.  William  Farel  and 
Antony  Saunier  banished  from  the  city  for  preaching 
evangelical  doctrines. 

John  Calvin,  a  native  of  Noyon  in  Picardy,  begins  to 
distinguish  himself  in  Paris. 


John  Campanus,  Antitrinitarian. 


University  of  Compostella  founded. 


The  changes  effected  by  Protestants  in  the  celebration 
of  divine  worship,  during  this  century,  may  be  thus  de- 
scribed, in  general :  — 

1.  The  abolition  of  all  rites  and  ceremonies  founded 
upon  ecclesiastical  errors  and  fables, 

z  4 


344  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  {Sixth 

2.  The  restoration  of  Scriptural  practices  and  institu- 
tions which  had  fallen  into  disuse. 

3.  The  granting  of  liberty,  with  regard  to  things  inno- 
cent or  indifferent,  either  to  retain  or  discontinue  them. 
(The  Lutheran  and  English  Churches  retained  many 
customs,  which  were  abolished  by  the  Swiss  and  others.) 

These  changes  affected  chiefly  the  following  particu- 
lars :  —  times  and  places  of  worship  ;  common  prayer ; 
psalmody;  preaching  and  catechising;  administration  of 
the  sacraments. 

The  few  differences  which  remained  among  Protestants 
related,  principally,  to  the  use  of  exorcism  at  baptism; 
some  eucharistic  questions;  the  retaining  of  images  in 
churches ;  church  music. 


1533  The  Pope  espouses  the  cause  of  Francis. 

*  Cranmer    made    Archbishop    of   Canterbury.     The 
king's  divorce  formally  declared.     John  Forsyth,  martyr. 
*  Violent  persecution  of  Reformers  in  Scotland. 
In  Denmark,  the  Roman  Catholic  party  gains  ascend- 
ancy for  a  short  time. 

Reformation  makes  progress  in  Transylvania. 


Luther's  Treatise  on  Private  Masses.  Sermons  on 
the  Apostles'  Creed,  &c.  Commentaries  and  Lectures  on 
various  parts  of  Scripture. 


1534        Reformation    in    Wurtemburg,    Pomerania,  Mecklen- 
burg, and  Augsburg. 

Persecution  of  Reformers  in  France. 

#  The  English  Parliament  abrogates  the  papal  su- 
premacy in  England,  and  recognises  that  of  the  king. 
Final  rupture  of  Henry  and  England  with  Rome.  Power 
of  the  bishops'  courts  abridged.  Oath  of  supremacy 
imposed.  Sir  Thomas  More,  and  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Ro- 
chester, refusing  to  take  the  oath,  are  sent  to  the  Tower. 

Publication  of  a  complete  edition  of  Luther's  Translation 
of  the  Bible,  in  three  volumes,  folio. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  345 

1534*        Ignatius  Loyola  forms  a  religious  society  in  Paris,  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 


Fanatical    Anabaptists    at  Munster,  under   Matthias, 
Bockhold,  and  Knipperdolling.     Insurrection;  quelled. 


t  Cardinal  Cajetan  (Thomas  de  Vio). 


1535        Francis  I.  of  France  negotiates  with   the   members  of 
the  Smalcaldic  League. 


The  pope  refuses  to  convene  a  council  in  Germany. 
The  Protestants  refuse  to  attend  one  if  assembled  in 
Italy. 

Interview  of  Vergerio,  pope's  nuncio,  with  Luther,  at 
Wittemberg. 

Evangelical  doctrines  propagated  in  Poland. 
Reformation  makes  progress  in  Geneva. 
*  Death  of  More  and  Fisher. 
Under  the  supremacy  of  Henry,  many  persons  are  con- 
demned and  burnt  as  heretics,  for  denying  the  doctrines 
of  purgatory,  the  corporeal  presence,  &c. 

*  Visitation  of  English  Monasteries. 
*  Cromwell,  first  Vicar  General,  afterwards  Lord  Vice- 
gerent. 

Melanchthon,  in  a  new  edition  of  his  Loci  Com- 
munes, evinces  a  disposition  to  depart  from  the  August- 
inian  doctrines  concerning  predestination,  grace,  and 
free-will. 


Luther's  Second  Commentary  on  the  Galalians. 
Calvin's  Institutio  Religionis  Christiana; ',  first  edition. 
Robert  Olivetan  translates  the  Bible  into  French,  for 
the  use  of  Protestants  in  that  country. 


*  Coverdale's  English  Bible. 


1536  Third  War  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I. 


346  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

1536        Publication  of  the  bull  In  Ccend  Domini,  in  support  of 
papal  authority. 

League  ofSmalcald  renewed  for  ten  years  more. 
Concord  of  Wittemberg  between  the  German  and  Swiss 
divines.      (Accepted  by  Swiss  Protestants,  generally,  in 
1538.) 

First  Helvetic  Confession. 
In  Denmark,  Christian  III.  prohibits  the  bishops  from 
offering  further  opposition  to  the  progress  of  Reformation. 
Viret  labours  for  reformation  in  Lausanne.  Calvin  called 
to  Geneva.     Reformation  makes  progress  in  Norway. 
Calvin  settles  at  Geneva. 

*  Articles  concerning  Faith  and  Ceremonies,  agreed 
upon  by  Convocation  and  published  by  royal  authority,  in 
England.  Acts  of  Parliament  directed  against  papal  au- 
thority. 

*  Henry,  summoned  before  a  general  council  at  Mantua, 
refuses  to  appear.  English  clergy  now  form  two  parties 
— -  one  supporting,  the  other  opposing,  the  work  of  re- 
formation. 

*  About  this  time,  proposals  were  considered  for  a  league 
between  the  German  Protestants  and  the  king  of  Eng- 
land. But,  the  former  refusing  to  enter  into  a  treaty 
against  the  emperor,  the  negotiation  was  fruitless. 


#  Use  of  the  Scriptures  in  English.  Cromwell  orders  every 
parson  to  cause  a  Bible  in  Latin  and  English  to  be  set  up  in 
the  choir  of  his  church  for  the  perusal  of  the  people. 

#  Dissolution  of  monasteries  in  England  having  in- 
comes under  200/.  a  year.  Their  revenues  bestowed  upon 
the  king. 

t  Erasmus.  —Promoter  of  classical  learning,  of  biblical 
theology,  and  the  study  of  the  Fathers.  Some  of  the  most 
important  of  his  works  —  next  to  those  already  mentioned 
— were,  his  Introduction  to  True  Theology  ;  Ecclesiastes, 
a  treatise  on  preaching;  'Eyxw^cjov  pcoplag;  and  Col- 
loquies. 

His  labours  contributed  to  pave  the  way  for  reformation, 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  347 

but  of  themselves  would  never  have  been  sufficient  to 
effect  it.  Luther  said  of  him,  that  he  could  point  out 
error,  but  would  not  teach  the  truth.  His  works  are  distin- 
guished by  philosophy  and  learning,  rather  than  by  simple 
Christianity.     He  was  overcautious,  and  even  timid. 


Christian  III.  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway. 


Assembly  of  Protestants  at  Smalcald.  Articles  ofSmal- 
cald,  drawn  up  by  Luther. 

Protestant  ecclesiastical  constitution  of  Denmark  com- 
pleted. 

#  Discontents  and  rebellion  in  England,  promoted  by 
the  clergy ;  quelled.  A  new  visitation  of  English  monas- 
teries. The  Bishop's  Book,  or  Institution  of  a  Christian 
Man,  published. 

*  In  England,  many  persons  deny  the  doctrine  of  the 
corporeal  presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist.  Hence 
called  Sacramentaries. 


Order  of  Ursulines,  originated  by  Angela  di  Brescia 
(for  assistance  of  the  needy,  and  instruction  of  females). 

Ignatius  Loyola  and  his  friends  repair  to  Rome,  where 
they  are  well  received,  having  already  acquired  great  re- 
putation in  the  Venetian  territory  by  their  attendance  on 
the  sick  in  hospitals, — their  ascetic  habits  of  life  —  and 
preaching  in  the  open  air. 


Menno  Simonis  quits   the  Church  of  Rome,  and  joins 
the  Anabaptists, 

*  Matthew's  English  Bible   (by  John   Rogers),  partly 
from  Tyndal  and  Coverdale. 

f  James  Le  Fevre,  R.  C. 


The  emperor  concludes  a  peace  with  France  for   ten 
years. 

Francis  of  France  had  made  demonstrations  in  favour 


348  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 


1538 


1539 


of  Protestants ;  after  his  peace  with  the  emperor,  he  begins 
to  treat  them  with  coolness. 

Christian  III.   King  of  Denmark,  and  other  princes, 
join  the  League  of  Smalcald. 


June  10. — Catholic  or  Holy  Alliance  ;  a  league  be- 
tween the  emperor  and  the  Roman  Catholic  princes 
against  the  Protestants,  for  eleven  years,  —  concluded  at 
Nuremberg.     Reformation  in  Nordlingen. 

*  The  Sacramentaries  persecuted  in  England. 

Lambert,  brother  of  Calvin,  obliged  to  withdraw  from 
Geneva;  becomes  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Strasburg. 

Celibacy  of  the  Clergy.  —  *  In  England  a  proclamation 
was  issued  this  year  against  the  marriage  of  the  clergy. 


Henry,   the  new  Duke  of  Saxony,  a  member  of  the 
League  of  Smalcald. 


Fruitless  conferences  between  Romanists  and  Protest- 
ants at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine  and  Leipsic. 

Convention  of  Frankfort,  between  the  emperor  and  the 
Protestants. 

The  Reformation  solemnly  recognised  and  adopted  in 
Leipsic,  at  Whitsuntide.  The  Duke  and  Elector  of  Saxony, 
with  Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  other  divines,  present. 
Reformation  of  Denmark  completed.  Reformation  in 
Brandenburg  and  Magdeburg. 

Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  establishes  the  reformed  re- 
ligion in  his  dominions.  Calvin  and  Peter  Martyr  in 
Strasburg. 

$•  In  England,  the  act  of  the  Six  Articles  was  passed, 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  Cranmer.  Cranmer 
complies,  but  Latimer  and  Shaxton  resign  their  sees. 

*  Various  negotiations  between  Henry  and  the  German 
Reformers,  with  a  view  to  a  close  agreement  and  co- 
operation, had  now  failed. 

*  Cardinal  Beaton,  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  349 


1539 


(1538 — 1540.)  Antinomistian  Controversy,  of  Luther, 
with  Agricola  of  Eisleben,  concerning  the  use  of  the 
law. 

At  Strasburg,  Calvin,  Farel,  and  Viret,  deliver  a  con- 
fession of  faith,  propounding  a  middle  doctrine  concerning 
the  Lord's  supper,  between  those  of  the  Lutherans  and 
the  Zwinglians. 


#  Final  suppression  of  English  monasteries.     Act  for 
the  erection  of  new  bishoprics  in  England. 

*  Licence  for  printing  the  Bible  granted  to  Cromwell, 
that  all  persons  may  have  free  use  of  it. 


Luther's  Treatise  on  Councils ;  Expositions  of  Scrip- 
ture, &c.  Hermann,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  anxious  to 
promote  the  Reformation. 

Calvin's  Treatise  on  the  Lord's  Supper. 

*  Great  Bible  (Cranmer's),  i.  e.  a  new  edition  of 
Matthew's,  published  under  the  patronage  of  Cranmer, 
and  with  a  preface  by  him.     Also,  Taverner's  Bible. 


1540        France  gives  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  assur- 
ances of  friendship. 


Conference  at  Spires  and  Worms ;  fruitless. 

Disturbances  at  Ghent.  Fresh  persecution  of  Pro- 
testants in  the  Low  Countries. 

Bernardino  Occhino  adopts  the  Protestant  faith. 

Landgrave  of  Hesse  marries  a  second  wife  during  the 
life  of  the  first,  against  the  remonstrances  of  Luther  and 
other  reformed  divines ;  followed  by  earnest  protestations 
from  many  laymen  and  ecclesiastics  of  the  reformed 
communion. 

*  In  England,  the  fall  of  Cromwell,  and  the  king's 
marriage  with  Catherine  Howard,  assist  the  papal  cause. 
Persecution  and  death  of  many  Reformers,  for  opposing 


250  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

Romish  errors ;  and  of  Roman  Catholics  for  denying  the 
king's  supremacy.     Martyrdom  of  Barnes. 


1540 


1541 


The  Society  of  Jesus  formally  established  by  Paul  III. 
Loyola  appointed  first  general  of  the  order.  The  mem- 
bers of  this  order  are  divided  into  four  classes  :  — 1.  Pro- 
fessi,  who,  besides  the  usual  monastic  engagements  to 
poverty,  continence,  and  obedience,  into  which  all  the 
members  enter,  undertake,  moreover,  to  go  on  the  service 
of  the  pope,  into  any  country  to  which  he  may  send 
them.      2.  Coadjutores,   or   presidents  of  single  colleges. 

3.  Scholastici    (approbati),     students    in    these    colleges. 

4.  Members  admitted  into  the  order  without  any  special 
destination.  A  preliminary  novitiate  of  one  or  two  years 
is  required.  The  object  of  the  order  is  the  support  and 
promotion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 


Order  of  the  Brethren  of  Mercy  founded. 


#  Bishopric  of  Westminster  erected. 
*  Use  of  the  Scriptures  in  English.  A  king's  proclama- 
tion orders  a  Bible  of  the  largest  size  to  be  provided  by 
the  curate  and  parishioners,  under  a  penalty  of  forty 
shillings  a  month.  In  the  following  year,  a  Brief  was 
published,  containing  the  same  instructions. 


Henry  Nicholas,  of  Delft,  founder  of  the  Familists. 


University  of  Lausanne  founded. 
(|  Francis  Guicciardini,  historian.) 
Luther's  academical  disputations  against  Antinomian 
tenets.     Preface   to    the  Account    of  the  Martyrdom  of 
Barnes. 

Turkish  War. 


The  German  princes  make  representations  to  the  king 
of  France  respecting  the  persecution  of  Protestants  in 
Germany,  but  without  eifect. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  351 

1541        Maurice,  Duke  of  Saxony,  a  Protestant,  but   not  a 
member  of  the  League  of  Smalcald. 

Francis  Xavier,  and  other  Jesuits,   go  from  Portugal 
to  the  East  Indies  as  missionaries. 


Diet  of  Ratisbon  (First  Interim,  or  Interim  of  Ratis- 
bon  ;  a  plan  of  union  or  compromise).  The  whole  matter 
again  referred  to  a  future  general  council,  or  the  next 
German  diet. 

About  this  time,  the  Reformation  takes  effect  in  Halle, 
Ratisbon,  Hilderheim,  Palatinate  of  Bavaria,  and  else- 
where. 

Calvin  recalled  to  Geneva,  where  he  acquires  great  in- 
fluence. He  establishes  a  presbytery,  and  a  system  of 
strict  ecclesiastical  discipline. 


#  Bishoprics  of  Chester,  Gloucester,  Oxford,  and  Peter- 
borough erected.  The  Bible  ordered  to  be  set  up  in  all 
English  churches. 

The  order  of  Jesuits  makes  great  progress  in  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Portugal. 


Luther's  Exposition  of  the  Nineteenth  Psalm,  and 
some  of  the  Minor  Prophets.  His  Exhortation  to  Prayer 
against  the  Turks. 

f  Carlstadt,  professor  and  preacher  at  Basle. 

"f  John  Ludovicus  Vives,  a  patron  of  classical  literature ; 
Pagninus,  a  celebrated  Hebrew  scholar ;  and  Paracelsus, 
a  philosopher. 

Fourth  War  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I, 


The  Prince  of  Anhalt  advocates  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation,  and  supports  the  Protestant  interest. 

#  Cardinal  Beaton,  Regent  of  Scotland,  by  means  of  a 
forged  will,  attributed  to  James  (died  in  1546). 


At  the  Diet  of  Spires,  the   Roman    Catholic   princes 


352  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

approve  of  Trent  as  the  place  for  a  general  council,  as 
proposed  by  the  pope.  The  Protestant  princes  dis- 
approve. 

Advocates  of  Reformation  in  Venice  and  Naples. 
1.542        *  In   the  English  Convocation,  an  attempt  is  made  to 
suppress  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  lately  published,  on 
the  ground  of  inaccuracy.     Cranmer  resists  the  effort ; 
examination  of  the  translation  referred  to  the  universities. 


*  Bishopric  of  Bristol  erected.   (It  was  the  design  of  the 
king  (Henry  VIII.)  to  create  many  more.) 


t  Cardinal  Contareni. 


1543  Successes  of  the  Turks  in  Hungary. 


Maurice,  Duke  of  Saxony,  publishes  some  good  eccle- 
siastical regulations. 

Reformation  cruelly  suppressed  at  Metz.  Reformation 
established  in  Brunswick  Wolfenbuttel. 

*  The  King's  Book,  or  Necessary  Doctrine  and  Eru- 
dition for  any  Christian  Man.  Act  of  the  English  Par- 
liament, in  favour  of  a  certain  degree  of  toleration,  but 
containing  restrictions  with  regard  to  the  reading  of 
Scripture. 

Plot  for  the  destruction  of  Cranmer;  detected  and 
forgiven. 

Clerici  Regulares  S.  Majoli. 


Luther's  correspondence  with  the  Venetians.  Hermann, 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  employs  Melanchthon,  Pistorius, 
and  Bucer,  to  prepare  his  formulary  of  doctrine,  cere- 
monies, and  discipline  (Book  of  Reformation). 

1  John  Eck,  Pro-chancellor  of  the  University  of  Ingol- 
stadt ;  celebrated  as  a  scholastic  divine,  and  on  account 
of  the  part  which  he  took  in  the  controversy  with  Luther. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  353 

15441  Peace  of  Cressy. 

Charles  and  Francis  agree  to  exert  their  united  powers 
in  order  to  obtain,  a  general  council. 

Frederic  II.  Elector  Palatine. 


Diet  at  Spires. — Recess  in  favour  of  the  Protestants,  on 
account  of  which  the  pope  sends  a  haughty  remonstrance 
to  the  emperor.  At  this  diet,  Hermann,  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  advocates  the  cause  of  Reformation.  Reform- 
ation continues  to  spread  through  various  provinces  of 
Germany. 

A  council  summoned  to  meet  at  Trent  next  year. 
Reformation  completed  in  Sweden. 
*  The  Litany  published  in  English. 


University  of  Konigsberg  founded. 


Hermann,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  cited  to  appear 
before  the  emperor,  and  before  the  pope. 

At  the  Diet  of  Worms,  the  Protestants  disclaim  the 
proposed  council. 

Council  opened  at  Trent. 

Reformation  of  the  Lower  Palatinate  (of  the  Rhine). 

About  this  time  Vergerio,  Bishop  of  Capo  d'lstria, 
renounces  the  errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome ;  and  is 
deprived  of  his  bishopric.   (Died  1566.) 

Reformed  doctrines  generally  received  in  Hungary  and 
Transylvania. 

*  In  England,  the  cause  of  Reformation  is  apparently 
promoted  by  the  advancement  of  several  comparatively 
sound  divines  to  the  bench  of  bishops. 


*  English    Book   of  Common   Prayer.        Tiie    King's 
Primer. 


The  Waldenses  of  Provence  suffer  a  cruel  persecution, 


A  A 


354  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

1545        Luther's  Commentaries  on  Hosea,  Joel,  and  Genesis. 


1546 


1547 


*  In  Scotland,  the  crown,  the  clergy,  and  the  French 
are  now  arrayed  against  the  nobles,  the  Reformers,  and 
the  English. 

January  —  March.  —  Conference  between  Romish  and 
Protestant  divines  at  Ratisbon  ;  without  effect. 
Luther  died,  February  18. 

First  Session  of  the  Council  of  Trent. —  The  Protestant 
princes,  assembled  at  Ratisbon,  reject  its  decrees.  (Diet  of 
Ratisbon,  June  5.) 

Hostilities  commence  between  the  emperor  and  Pro- 
testant princes  (Smalcaldic  War).  Maurice,  Duke  of 
Saxony,  invades  the  Electorate.  The  elector  recovers  his 
dominions. 

Hermann,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  excommunicated 
and  deposed  by  the  pope,  and  deprived  of  his  electorate 
by  the  emperor.     Reformation  of  Cologne  suppressed. 

*  In  England,  Anne  Askew  executed,  under  the  act 
of  the  Six  Articles. 

*  Scotch  Reformation.  Cardinal  Beaton  assassinated.  Re- 
formers commence  an  open  resistance  to  the  government. 


*  Use  of  the  Scriptures  in  English. — Proclamation  against 
TyndaPs  and  Coverdale's  Bible. 


Foundation  of  the  sect  of  Socinians  laid  by  the  formation 
of  a  society  of  Italian  Antitrinitarians. 


|  Martin  Luther. 


Edition  of  the  New  Testament  by  Robert  Stephens. 


T  Francis  I.  of  France.  Under  his  successor,  Henry  II. 
the  condition  of  the  French  Protestants  was  not  im- 
proved. 

#  "j*  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  Edward  VI.  succeeds, 
who  favours  the  progress  of  Reformation  in  his  dominions. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  355 

Maurice,  Elector  of  Saxony. 


March.  —  The  council  transferred  from  Trent  to  Bo- 
logna; and  thus,  in  fact,  suspended. 

April  24.  —  Battle  of  Muhlberg.  Elector  of  Saxony 
taken  prisoner;  and  afterwards,  by  stratagem,  Philip, 
Landgrave  of  Hesse. 

September.  —  Diet  of  Augsburg. 

#  Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  in  England.  After 
the  accession  of  Edward,  a  royal  visitation  for  ecclesias- 
tical matters,  and  injunctions  to  the  clergy.  First  Book  of 
Homilies  published.     Bonner  and  Gardiner  imprisoned. 

*  John  Knox,  the  Reformer,  preaches  in  Scotland. 


*  In  England,  the  doctrine  of  purgatory  was  now 
growing  out  of  date  ;  and  provision  had  been  made  for  the 
general  instruction  of  children  in  the  Creed,  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  the  Commandments. 

Laelius  Socinus  quits  Italy,  and  repairs  to  Germany  and 
Switzerland. 

*  Use  of  the  Scriptures  in  English.  The  whole  Bible  in 
English,  and  the  Paraphrase  of  Erasmus,  ordered  to  be 
set   up   in  every   parish   church. 


University  of  Rheims  founded. 
t   James  Sadler,  R.  C. 
to  1552.     *   Paraphrase  of  Erasmus   translated  into 
English. 


Ferdinand  enacts  severe  laws  against  the  Evangelicals 
in  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  Many  Bohemian  Brethren 
repair  to  Poland  and  Prussia. 


At  Augsburg,  by  command  of  the  emperor,  a  formulary 
is  drawn  up,  containing  a  rule  of  faith  and  worship,  to  be 

a  a  2 


356  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

observed  by  all  parties  until  another  council  should  issue 
its  decrees  (the  Augsburg  Interim)  ;  less  favourable  to 
the  Protestants  than  that  of  Ratisbon  —  rejected  by  most 
Protestants.  Succeeded  in  the  same  year  by  the  Interim 
of  Leipsic,  which  was  accepted  by  many  Protestants,  but 
not  by  all. 

The  Leipsic  Interim,  composed  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Elector  Maurice,  makes  concessions  "  in  things  indif- 
ferent."    Rise  of  the  Adiaphoristic  Controversy. 
It548       *  In  England,  the  power  of  ecclesiastical  courts  abridged. 
Gardiner  imprisoned.     Cranmer's  Catechism. 


A  brief  controversy  respecting  the  Descent  of  Christ 
into  Hell  (John  iEpinus). 

*  In  England  a  great  purification  of  doctrine  had  now 
been  effected.  Private  masses  had  been  forbidden,  and 
communion  in  both  kinds  granted  to  the  laity. 

Melanchthon  plainly  asserts  the  necessity  of  the  concur- 
rence of  man's  will  with  the  word  and  the  grace  of  God, 
in  order  to  conversion  and  sanctification. 


Philip  of  Neri  lays  the  foundation  of  the  Society  of 
Priests  of  the  Oratory,  in  Italy ;  at  first  called  the  Order 
of  the  Holy  Trinity  (for  the  exercise  of  devotion,  com- 
bined with  religious  study). 

Jesuits.  —  Permission  granted  to  the  Society  of  Jesus  to 
incorporate  any  number  of  members,  as  preachers  and  con- 
fessors. 

#  In  England,  this  year,  images  were  ordered  to  be  re- 
moved, and  many  superstitious  practices  were  suppressed. 
Communion  Service  published,  partly  in  English;  not 
free  from  error  and  superstition ;  administration  in  both 
kinds. 


Universities  of  Jena,  Messina,  and  Ossuna,  founded, 
f  George  Spalatin,  L. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  357 

1548  and  1549.  #  Two  editions  of  an  English  translation  of 
the  Book  of  Ratramn,  or  Bertram,  on  the  Lord's  supper. 
*  Learned  foreigners  in  England  assist  in  the  recovery 
and  establishment  of  scriptural  truth.  Fagius,  Tremel- 
lius,  and  Bucer,  at  Cambridge.  Peter  Martyr,  and  Oc- 
chino,  at  Oxford. 


The  Jesuit  missionary,  Francis  Xavier,  goes  from  the 
East  Indies  to  Japan.  Six  Jesuits  proceed  as  missionaries 
to  Brazil. 


f  Matthias  Devay,  the  Hungarian  Reformer. 

*  Ecclesiasital  visitation  in  England,  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  superstitious  observances.  Joan  Bocher  burnt  for 
heresy ;    Cranmer  urges  Edward  to  sign  the  warrant. 

Insurrection  in  England  in  favour  of  Romish  religion  ; 
quelled.     Bonner  imprisoned  and  deprived. 


Rise  of  the  Osiandrian  Controversy, 
respecting  the  doctrine  of  Justification.     (Confusion  of 
Justification  and  Sanctification.) 

Calvin  comes  to  an  agreement  with  Bullinger  and  other 
divines  of  Zurich,  respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
supper  (Consensus  Tigurinus).  The  doctrines  advocated 
by  Calvin  respecting  the  Eucharist,  Grace,  and  Predesti- 
nation, prevail  generally  in  Switzerland. 

and  1550.  *  Disputations  in  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
concerning  the  doctrine  of  Transubstantiation. 


The  Jesuits  favourably  received  in  many  places.  Duke 
William  III.  of  Bavaria  invites  them  into  his  dominions. 
The  whole  order  declared  to  be  exempt  from  all  juris- 
diction except  that  of  the  pope. 

*  In  England,  an  act  passed  authorising  the  marriage 
of  the  clergy.     Another,  enjoining  the  eating  of  fish  on 
fast  days,  for  the  support  of  the  fisheries. 
*    English  Book  of  Common  Prayer.     First  Liturgy  of 
a  a  3 


358  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

Edward    VI.    published.      (Chiefly  from  the  Salisbury 
Hours  and  Hermann's  Consultation.) 


1550 


Many  advocates  of  the  Reformation  are  found  in 
Spain.  The  emperor  adopts  new  measures  for  the  sup- 
pression of  Reformation  in  the  Low  Countries. 

*  In  England,  Gardiner  is  deprived  of  the  See  of  Win- 
chester.    Ridley,  Bishop  of  London  and  Westminster. 

Several  churches  of  foreign  Protestants  in  London. 

Jesuits.  —  The  Society  of  Jesus  (although  a  mendicant 
order)  receives  privilege  to  possess  colleges,  with  the  ne- 
cessary revenues. 

*  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  First  Ordination 
Service. 


f  Paul  Fagius,  L. 


1551  Fresh  war  with  the  Turks  in  Hungary. 


Consensus  Pastorum  Genevensium. 

Julius  re-opens  the  Council  of  Trent;  but  its  sitting  is 
soon  discontinued  at  the  approach  of  Maurice's  army. 

The  Jesuits  make  great  efforts  to  reclaim  the  Evangeli- 
cals in  Austria.     Peter  Canisius. 

#•  Commission  for  reforming  the  Ecclesiastical  Laws  in 
England. 

Predestinarian  Controversy  among  Protestants  begins. 
Rise  of  the  Majoristic  and  Stancaristic  Controversies 
in  the  Evangelical  Church. 


(or  1550.)     *  Review  of  the  English  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.     Bucer's  objections. 


Laelius  Socinus  in  Poland. 


Castellio's  Translation  of  the  Bible. 

t  Martin  Bucer,  L. 

Universities  founded  at  Mexico  and  Lima. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  359 

*  Shrewsbury  School  founded. 


*  Execution  of  Somerset,  the  English  Protector. 


Persecution  of  the  Reformed  in  France. 
T  Francis  Xavier,  the  Apostle  of  the  Indians. 


Maurice,  Duke  of  Saxony,  had  refused  to  attend  the 
council  to  be  re-assembled  at  Trent,  except  on  conditions 
greatly  in  favour  of  the  Protestant  cause. 

He  now  turns  his  arms  against  the  emperor,  and  com- 
pels him  to  conclude  a  Treaty  at  Passau,  by  which  he 
engages  to  release  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the  Land- 
grave of  Hesse ;  to  revoke  the  Interim ;  to  grant  to  the 
Protestants  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  ;  and  to  as- 
semble, in  the  course  of  six  months,  a  diet,  for  the  settling 
of  all  religious  differences,  or  at  least  for  the  establish- 
ment of  perfect  toleration. 

The  Nestorian  Patriarch,  John  Sulaca,  at  Rome,  pro- 
fesses adherence  to  the  Romish  Church. 


Sacramentarian  Controversy  renewed  by  the  attacks   of 
Joachim  Westphal  upon  Calvin. 


Jesuit  colleges  receive  from  the  pope  the  privileges  of 
universities. 

*  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Second  Liturgy 
of  Edward  VI.  (under  the  direction  of  Cranmer,  with 
the  aid  of  Bucer  and  Peter  Martyr.  Substantially  the 
same  as  that  now  in  use).     Second  Ordination  Service. 

Acts  of  Parliament,  enjoining  the  observance  of  holy 
days,  and  fasting  on  Fridays  and  Saturdays  in  Lent,  and 
other  fast  days ;  and  declaring  the  marriage  of  the  clergy 
legal,  and  their  children  legitimate. 


Universities  of  Dillingen  and  Orihuela  founded. 
T  Hermann,    Archbishop    of   Cologne.       ("  Osiander, 
"j"  Paul  Jovius,  historian. 

a  a  4 


360  ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION.  (Sixth 

1553  *  Mary,  Queen  of  England, 

t  George,  Prince  of  Anhalt. 


Roman  Catholic  Missions  to  China. 


#  In  England,  under  Edward,  Forty-two  Articles  of 
Religion  were  published  by  royal  proclamation,  probably 
the  work  of  Cranmer. 

•*  Afterwards,  under  Mary,  measures  are  taken  for  re- 
storing the  Romish  religion.  Gardiner,  Chancellor. 
Bonner  recovers  his  see.  Preaching  prohibited.  Cran- 
mer, having  published  a  protest  against  the  Mass,  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower  on  charge  of  high-treason.  Acts  of 
Edward  VI.  repealed.  Weston,  Dean  of  Westminster, 
prolocutor  in  the  Convocation  now  assembled,  aptly 
declares  to  the  Reformers,  "  You  have  the  word,  but  we 
have  the  sword  !  " 


Majoristic  Controversy,  respecting  the  necessity  of  good 
works. 


*  In  England,  the  larger  Catechism  published,  with 
royal  sanction. 

*  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  Christ's  Hospital,  and 
Bridewell,  founded  by  Edward,  in  accordance  with  the 
advice  of  Ridley. 

*  After  the  accession  of  Mary,  the  Common  Prayer  and 
the  Catechism  were  declared  heretical  by  Convocation.  Mar- 
riage of  the  clergy  no  longer  sanctioned  ;  married  clergy 
ejected  from  their  benefices. 


Michael  Servetus  burnt,  at  Geneva,  as  a  blasphemer. 
(His  Antitrinitarian  system  combined  the  Samosatian  and 
Sabellian  errors.) 

N.B.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  to  the  grief  and  humi- 
liation of  all  reformed  Catholic  Christians,  that  men  whose 
names  are  deservedly  held  in  honour  in  their  churches,  — 


Period,)  era  of  the  reformation.  361 

Calvin,  Beza,  and  Melanchthon,  —sanctioned  the  infliction 
of  capital  punishment  on  this  fanatical  teacher  of  error. 


*  Mary,  Queen  of  England,  married  to  Philip,  King 
of  Spain. 

*  Cranmer,  Ridley,  and  Latimer,  engage  in  a  public 
disputation  at  Oxford,  against  the  Roman  Catholic  party 
supported  by  Convocation. 

Cardinal  Pole,  pope's  legate,  arrives  in  England;  ab- 
solves the  nation,  and  receives  it  once  more  into  the 
(Roman)  Catholic  Church.     Acts  against  heresy  revived, 


Calvin's  doctrine  concerning  Predestination  occasions 
controversies  in  Switzerland.  But  his  "  Consensus  Pas- 
torum  Genevensium  de  aeterna  Predestination e "  is 
adopted  by  an  assembly  of  divines  at  Zurich. 


The  bishop  of  Paris  and  the  Sorbonne  protest  against 
the  introduction  of  Jesuits  into  France. 


Divisions  among  the  Mennonite  Anabaptists,  relating 
especially  to  Church  discipline  (Fleming  Baptists,  the 
more  strict ;  Waterland,  the  more  lax). 


Calvin  writes  against  Westphal. 


Diet  of  Augsburg. 

September  25. — Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg;  con- 
firming the  Protestant  Churches  of  Germany  in  all  their 
rights  and  possessions,  and  recognising  their  independ- 
ence of  the  pope. 

*  Violent  persecutions  of  the  Reformed  in  England, 
promoted  by  Gardiner.  Rogers  burnt  at  Smithfield, 
Hooper  at  Gloucester,  Saunders  at  Coventry,  Taylor  at 
Hadley.  Inquisitorial  measures  for  the  detection  of  here- 
tics. Death  of  Gardiner.  Cardinal  Pole  inclined  to 
moderate    measures.     Cranmer    condemned    at    Oxford. 


362 


ERA    OF    THE    REFORMATION. 


(Sixth 


1555 


\s- 


Latimer    and    Ridley   burnt.     Knox    seeks    refuge    at 
Geneva. 


Pfeffinger,  at  Leipsic,  having  adopted  the  views  of 
Melanchthon,  publishes  his  "  Propositiones  De  Libero 
Arbitrio ; "  and  thus  gives  rise  to  the  Synergistic  Contro- 
versy. 

The  Osiandrian  Controversy  continues  to  rage  with 
great  violence  in  Prussia.  The  Osiandrian  party,  with 
Funk  at  its  head,  prevails  for  a  time. 

*  Predestinarian  Controversy  among  English  Protest- 
ants painfully  violent. 


*  Mary  endeavours  to  restore  religious  houses  in 
England. 

#  Translation  of  the  Psalms  into  English  metre  for 
use  in  public  worship,  by  Sternhold,  Hopkins,  and  others, 
begun  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  completed  in  the  reign 
of  Mary. 

T  Justus  Jonas,  L. 


—  t  Henry  Nicholas,  founder  of  the  Family  of  Love. 


List    of    Popes,    Patriarchs,    and    Archbishops    of 
Canterbury,  from  the  Year  15*20  to  1555. 


1520.  Jeremiah  I. 

1522.  Adrian  VI. 

1523.  Clement  VII. 
—      Joannicus  I. 

His  successors  were 
Dionysius  II. 
Jehosaphat  II. 


1533.  *  Thomas  Cranmer. 

1534.  Paul  III. 
1550.  Julius  III. 
1555.  Marcellus  II. 

—     Paul  IV. 


Period.)  era  of  the  reformation.  363 


Councils  from  the  Year  1520  to  1555. 

Various  Conferences  took  place  between  Protestants  and  Romanists; 
also,  Assemblies  of  Protestant  Churches. 

1528.  Paris.     Bourges.     Lyons. 
1536.  Cologne. 

1545.  First   Session  of   the  Council   of    Trent. — 
The  Last  General  Council. 


END    OF    THE    SIXTH    PERIOD. 


PERIOD    VII. 

FROM    THE    REFORMATION    TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME, 

1556—1837. 


1556 


Ferdinand  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Philip  II.  King  of  Spain, 

after  the  abdication  of  Charles  V. 

( #  Mary,  Queen  of  England. 

Henry  II.  King  of  France.) 


The  Greek  Church  is  now  under  the  Turkish  yoke  ;  but  it 
recognises  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  as  its  head. 

During  this  century  the  controversy  between  the  Greek  and 
Roman  Churches  continues ;  attempts  at  union  fail. 

A  part  of  the  Nestorians  conform  to  the  Church  of 
Rome. 

Doctrines  of  the  Reformation  spread  from  Germany 
into  Spain,  where  they  made  some  impression,  particularly 
at  Valladolid  and  Seville.  They  were,  however,  sup- 
pressed by  the  vigilance  of  the  Inquisition,  and  cruel 
persecution.  (Annual  celebration  of  the  Auto-da- Fe, 
after  1559.) 

Controversies  between  the  divines  of  Switzerland  and 
those  of  the  Low  Countries. 

Majoristic  Controversy  continues. 
Funk,  leader  of  the  Osiandrian  party  at  Konigsberg, 


(Seventh  Period.)       from  the  reformation,  etc.  3b'5 

obliged  to  retract  his  opinions.     But  the  controversy  not 
yet  at  an  end. 


Jesuit  Missionaries  proceed  to  Abyssinia  and  China. 

The  pope  having  espoused  the  cause  of  France,  the 
Duke  of  Alva  invades  the  papal  territory,  at  the  head  of 
Spanish  troops. 

Calvin  and  the  Church  of  Geneva  send  missionaries  to 
Brazil ;  but  the  undertaking  is  soon  abandoned. 


*  Persecution  in  England  continues.  Cranmer  burnt ; 
Cardinal  Pole,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Eighty-five 
persons  in  various  parts  of  England  put  to  death  for 
heresy  this  year. 

John  a  Lasco  zealously  propagates  reformed  doctrine 
in  Poland. 

Reformation  makes  some  progress  in  France  (1521 — 
1563)  amidst  powerful  opposition. 


t  Ignatius  Loyola.— J.  Lainez  becomes  general  of  the 
order  of  Jesuits,  which  continues  to  increase  in  importance. 
It  is  established  in  Italy,  Germany,  Spain,  Portugal, 
France,  Brazil,  Ethiopia,  the  East  Indies,  and  possesses 
one  hundred  colleges. 

*  English  Reformers  in  foreign  parts  dispute  among 
themselves  concerning  liturgy  and  ceremonies. 


David  Joris,  or  Georgi,  a  mystic  Anabaptist. 


Beza  publishes  his  Translation  of  the  Bible. 

T  Sleidan,  the  celebrated  historian  of  the  Reformation. 

Protestant  divines  of  this  period  render  great  service 
to  the  cause  of  religion  by  their  editions,  translations,  and 
expositions  of  Holy  Scripture. 

They  also  effect  improvements  in  Church  History  and 
Catechetical  Theology. 


366  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1557  The  pope  makes  peace  with  Spain. 


#  Visitation  of  the  English  universities.  Remains  of 
Bucer  and  Fagius  burnt  at  Cambridge ;  at  Oxford,  those 
of  Peter  Martyr's  wife  insulted.  Persecution  continues. 
Seventy-nine  persons  suffer  this  year  for  heresy.  Com- 
mission to  Bonner  for  the  discovery  of  heresy. 

#  Deed  of  Union  framed  by  Scotch  Reformers  in  Con- 
gregation, for  resisting  tyrannical  opposition  to  their  pro- 
ceedings. 

1558  t  Charles  V. 


Frankfort  Recess  —  for  allaying  contentions  in  the 
Lutheran  Church. 

Reformation  makes  progress  in  Hungary  and  Tran- 
sylvania. 

*  Persecution  of  Protestants  in  England  continued. 
This  year  thirty-nine  persons  suffer  death  for  heresy.  A 
proclamation  issued,  forbidding  people  to  pray  for  the 
sufferers.  Total  number  of  victims  during  the  reign  of 
Mary,  two  hundred  and  seventy.  Death  of  Mary,  and  of 
Cardinal  Pole. 

#  Accession  of  Elizabeth. 

The  Emperor  Ferdinand  I.  makes  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  (1558 — ]564)  to  effect  an  union  between  the 
Romish  and  Protestant  Churches. 


Opinions  of  Melanchthon,  at  variance  with  those  of 
Luther,  —  respecting  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the  eu- 
charist,  the  union  of  the  two  natures  in  his  person,  and 
the  ubiquity  of  his  human  nature, — are  adopted  by  many 
divines  of  the  Lutheran  communion,  and  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Crypto-calvinistic  Controversy. 

(Corpus  Doctrinae  Misnicum,  or  Philippicum.) 


*  After  the  accession   of  Elizabeth,  a  committee  was 
appointed  to   examine    and  alter  the   English  Liturgy. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  367 

Permission  granted  to  celebrate  some  portions  of  divine 
service  in  English.  Injunctions  against  preaching,  for 
the  avoiding  of  controversy. 


|  John  Bugenhagen  (Pomeranus). 


Francis  II.  King  of  France. 


Protestant   missionaries   sent  to   Lapland,    under  the 
auspices  of  Gustavus  Vasa. 


Confession  des  Eglises  Reformees  de  France, 
drawn  up  by  a  synod  at  Paris. 

#  Coronation  of  Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England.  Su- 
preme authority  in  matters  ecclesiastical  restored  to  the 
sovereign.  Act  of  Uniformity.  Disputation  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  Elizabeth's  Injunctions,  and  Articles  of 
Visitation.  Court  of  High  Commission  established.  Oath 
of  Supremacy  imposed,  —  generally  taken.  (N.B.  Of 
9400  beneficed  men  in  England,  only  189  refused  to 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy ;  namely,  14  bishops,  6  abbots, 
12  deans,  12  archdeacons,  15  heads  of  colleges,  50  pre- 
bendaries, and  80  rectors.)  Matthew  Parker  duly  con- 
secrated Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  December  17. 

The  whole  Bible  in  English  to  be  set  up  in  every  parish 
church. 

#   Knox  returns  to  England. 


Fresh  persecution  of  the  Waldenses. 


Calvin's  Institutio  Christiance  Religionis  completed. 

#  At  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  great  ignorance  and 
superstition  prevail  among  the  clergy  in  the  English  uni- 
versities, and  throughout  the  kingdom. 


368 
1560 


V 


1561 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 

Charles  IX.  King  of  France. 


(Seventh 


The  government  of  France  opposed  to  the  progress  of 
the  Protestants  (Huguenots)  in  that  country. 


*  Reformation  established  in  Scotland.     Superin tend- 
ency. 

f  John  a  Lasco. 
Cruel  suppression  of  Protestant  doctrines  in  Italy. 


Great  commotion  in  the  churches  of  Saxony,  occa- 
sioned by  the  Synergistic  Controversy.  The  Synergistic 
party  prevails  for  a  time  against  the  strict  Lutheran. 
But,  eventually,  Antisynergistic  doctrines  are  established. 


*  Westminster  College  founded, 
f  Melanchthon. 
Publication  of  the  Magdeburg  Centuries  begun. 

*  Geneva  Bible  —  partly  a  new  translation,  and  partly 
the  old  revised  (nearly  the  same  as  the  present  authorised 
version). 

#  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Liturgy  of  Eliza- 
beth, i.  e.  the  Second  Book  of  Common  Prayer  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  with  a  few  alterations. 


Attempts  to  suppress  the  Reformation  in  the  Netherlands 
had  proved  abortive. 

The    Belgic  Confession. 
Conference  at  Poissy. 


Controversy  of  Lutherans  with  Flacius,  concerning  the 
nature  and  extent  of  original  sin,  or  the  corruption  of 
human  nature. 

Jesuits  declared  exempt  from  restrictions  imposed  upon 
other  monks,  with  regard  to  residence. 


t  Menno  Simon  or  Simonis  —  restorer  and  reformer 


Period.)  TO  THE  present  time.  369 

of  the  party  of  Anabaptists ;  afterwards  called,  from  him, 
Mennonites.     Their  chief  seat  in  Holland. 


t   Caspar    Schwenkfeld.  —  Schwenkfeldians  (a   small 
party)   in  Silesia  and  North  America. 


Wars  in  France  between  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Pro- 
testants [Huguenots)  begin. 


Council  of  Trent  re-opened  by  Pius  IV. 


Heidelberg  Catechism. 
(Reformed  Church  substituted  for  the  Lutheran  in  the 
Palatinate.) 

Major  retracts  his  offensive  expressions  relative  to  the 
necessity  of  good  works  in  order  to   salvation ;   and  the 
controversy  subsides  soon  afterwards, 
f  Laelius  Socinus. 


t  Peter  Martyr,  R. 
*•   Jewel's  Apology  for  the  Church  of  England. 


Close  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

Its  decrees  comprised  a  condemnation  of  the  Pro- 
testants and  their  doctrines,  and  a  final  ratification  and 
establishment  of  the  novel  and  peculiar  tenets  of  the 
Romish  Church.  Protestations  against  the  exorbitant 
power  of  the  pope,  and  declarations  in  favour  of  the  in- 
dependency of  national  churches,  silenced.  Exposition 
of  the  decrees  entrusted  to  the  pope. 

16  In  England  the  taking  of  the  oath  of  supremacy  en- 
forced by  a  severe  act  of  Parliament.  Reformation 
completed. 

*  The  Thirty-eight  Articles  published  (the  original 
forty- two  revised  and  altered). 

*  Noel's  (revision  of  the  larger)  Catechism  approved. 

B  B 


370 


1563 


1564 


\/ 


v 


from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

*  Second  Book  of  Homilies  printed. 


University  of  Dillingen  granted  to  the  Jesuits. 


The  Antitrinitarians  in  Poland  separate  themselves  from 
the  Protestant  churches  at  the  Synod  of  Pinkzow ;  hence 
called  Pinkzovians. 

A  way  is  now  open  for  the  reception  of  Socinianism  in 
Translyvania. 

j*  Sebastian  Castellio.     *  Andreas  Musculus. 


Maximilian  II.  Emperor  of  Germany; 
an  enlightened  and  tolerant  prince.     On  his  accession  to 
the  empire  he  refused  to  take  any  oath  to  the  pope,  ex- 
cept one  obliging  himself  to  defend  the  Catholic  Church. 
End  of  the  First  Religious  War  in  France. 


Pius  IV.  confirms  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
(Professio  Fidei  Tridentina). 

The  papal  system  was  now  broken,  but  not  overthrown. 
Opposed  to  the  progress  of  improvement  and  the  general  spirit 
of  the  times,  it  yet  preserved  its  existence  by  a  certain  degree 
of  consistency  in  error,  and  was  aided  by  the  incon- 
sistencies and  faults  of  Protestant  churches. 


#  Violent  disputes  in  England,  relating  to  the  use  of 
ecclesiastical  vestments. 

The  English  Nonconformists  acquire  the  name  of 
Puritans  about  this  time. 


"j"  Bernardino  Occhino  —  who,  in  the  latter  part  of  his 
life,  fell  into  Antitrinitarian  error.  Also,  Matth.  Gri- 
baldi,  an  Arian,  native  of  Italy. 

|  Hyperius. 

j"  Calvin  —  the  Reformer  or  Restorer  of  the  Reformed 
(Zwinglian)  Church  in  Switzerland. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  371 

1,564'  University  of  Besancon  founded. 


Philip  II.  of  Spain  renews  his  severe  decree  against 
"heretics"  in  the  Low  Countries. 


Spain  receives  the  Tridentine  decrees;  —  France 
hesitates. 

In  the  Low  Countries  great  dissatisfaction  occasioned 
by  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition.  Compromise  at 
Brussels. 

#  English  Nonconformists. —  Large  numbers  of  persons 
in  England,  clergy  and  others,  object  to  the  use  of  eccle- 
siastical dresses  and  ceremonies,  enjoined  by  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  and  to  other  matters  connected  with  the  con- 
stitution and  administration  of  the  Church. 

#■  Advertisements  of  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners 
(i.  e.  canons  enforcing  uniformity),  published  this  year. 


Unitarians,  as  a  separate  body,  especially  at  Pinkzow 
and  Racow.  About  this  time  they  form  distinct  societies 
also  in  Transylvania. 

j"  Paul  Alciato,  an  Italian  Antitrinitarian. 


Chemnitz  publishes  his  Examen  Concilii  Tridentini. 

University  of  Milan  founded. 
|  Peter  Paul  Verger,  Bishop  of  Capo  d'  Istria.     f  Wil- 
liam Far  el,  R. 


The  pope  cites  the  queen  of  Navarre  to  Rome.  France 
compels  him  to  withdraw  the  citation. 

*  Mary,  Queen  of  Scotland,  having  failed  in  her  at- 
tempts to  restore  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  her 
dominions,  abdicates. 


Pius  V.  endeavours  to  enforce  the  universal  reception 
of  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.     Roman  Cate- 
chism, or  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
Helvetic  Confession, 
b  b  2 


372  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1566  *  Same  of  the  London  clergy,  ejected  for  refusal  to 
comply  with  the  Advertisements,  hold  private  meetings 
for  prayer  and  devotion. 

*  In  Scotland,  the  General  Assembly  decides  upon  the 
adoption  of  the  Geneva  (Presbyterian)  discipline.  But 
the  court  retains  sufficient  power  to  prevent  the  legal 
establishment  of  the  Presbytery  until  1592. 


t  J.  Valentin  Gentilis,  an  Italian  Antitrinitarian,  be- 
headed at  Bern;  partly  on  account  of  his  errors,  and 
partly  as  a  punishment  for  a  civil  offence. 


University  of  Strasburg  founded. 
j"  John  Agricola,  L.     "J"  George  Cassander,  R.  C. 


1567  Duke  of  Alva  in  the  Netherlands. 

Second  Religious  War  in  France. 


Rise  of  the  Jansenist  Controversy  in  the  Church  of  Rome. 
— Opinions  concerning  divine  grace,  advanced  by  Baius 
(Michael  de  Bay),  excite  a  controversy  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  lay  the  foundation  of  the  Jansenist  party. 

The  Council  of  Trent  pronounced  no  decision  respect- 
ing Predestination,  and  couched  its  decrees  concerning 
Grace  and  Free  Will  in  ambiguous  terms.  The  August- 
inian  doctrines  on  these  points  were  contained  in  the 
formularies  of  the  Church;  but  a  different  system  (Semi- 
pelagian)  had  been  long  held  by  a  large  portion  of  the 
clergy.  The  Augustinian  Thomist  party  in  the  Church 
now  begin  to  assert  their  doctrines  strenuously  against  the 
Scotists  or  Semipelagians.  The  Franciscans  of  Louvain 
select  seventy-six  propositions  from  the  lectures  of  De 
Bay,  and  submit  them  to  the  pope;  the  latter,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  the  Jesuits,  condemns  the  propositions,  and  for- 
bids all  further  controversy  concerning  them  (a.d.  1567). 


jt5(3g  Third  Religious  War  in  France. 

Prince  of  Orange  in  the  Netherlands. 


Period.)  TO  THE  present  time.  373 

1568  Pius  V.  renews  the  bull  In  Ccena  Domini. 

Bold  hierarchical  claims. 


Divisions  among  the  Polish  Antitrinitarians.  A  society 
of  Arians  established  at  Sandek,  on  the  borders  of  Hun- 
gary-   

#  English  College  of  secular  (R.  C.)  clergy  at  Douay 
founded. 

#  The  Bishop's  (or  Parker's)  Bible ;  i.  e.  a  corrected 
edition  of  the  Great  Bible. 


Breviarium  Romanum, 


1569        Dispute  of  the  pope  with  France,  Spain,  and  Venice, 
respecting  the  payment  of  taxes  by  the  clergy. 


Maximilian  grants  a  qualified  religious  liberty  to  his 
Protestant  subjects  in  Austria. 

#  The  pope  (Pius  V.)  publishes  a  bull,  forbidding  obe- 
dience to  Elizabeth,  as  being  excommunicate. 


Jansenist  Controversy. 
Baius  (de  Bay)  compelled  to  retract  his  alleged  errors, 
notwithstanding  his  appeal  to  the  authority  of  Augustin. 


1570        Missionaries    sent    from    the    Church   of    Geneva   to 
America. 


Protestant  doctrines  had  made  considerable  progress 
in  Poland. 

Consent  of  Faith  at  Sendomir, 
between    the    Evangelical,    Reformed,    and    Bohemian 
Brethren. 

#•  Controversy  between  Cartwright  and  Whitgift  at 
Cambridge,  respecting  the  Liturgy  and  episcopal  govern- 
ment.    Cartwright  silenced  by  authority. 

*  Bull  of  Pope  Pius  V.  published  in  England. 
b  b  3 


374  from  the  reformation  {Seventh 

*  Alienation  and  waste  of  Church  property  in  England 
countenanced  by  Elizabeth  throughout  her  reign. 


1570  Crypto-calvinistic  Controversy  in  the  Lutheran  Church, 
respecting  the  bodily  presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist, 
takes  its  rise.  Peucer  and  other  Lutheran  divines  main- 
tain a  doctrine  resembling  that  of  the  Reformed  churches. 
At  first  favoured  by  the  elector  of  Saxony. 


Missale  Romanum. 

T  John  Brentz,  L. 

1571  Consensus  Dresdensis. 

The  Belgic  Confession  approved  by  the  States. 

*  The  English  Convocation  attempts  to  improve  the 
ecclesiastical  laws ;  no  canons  ratified.  Act  of  Parliament 
requires  subscription  to  the  Articles  of  Religion,  and  makes 
regulations  respecting  the  age  requisite  for  ordination  of 
priests  and  deacons,  and  concerning  Church  property. 
Laws  against  Roman  Catholics  (occasioned  by  the  bull 
of  Pope  Pius  V.). 

*  N.B.  The  Articles  of  Religion,  after  a  review,  assumed 
their  present  form  and  number.  These  Thirty-nine  Arti- 
cles were  subscribed  by  Convocation,  and  published  under 
the  superintendence  of  Jewel. 


#  From  this  time  members  of  the  high  church  party 
in  England  strenuously  maintain  the  doctrine  of  the  (ex- 
clusively) divine  origin  and  institution  of  Episcopacy  ;  affirm- 
ing, at  the  same  time,  the  apostolical  succession  of  bishops. 


Jesuits  obtain  permission  to  lecture  in  all  universities. 
#  Poor  Laws  established  in  England. 


*  Doctrines  of  the  Familists  begin  to  spread  in  England, 


t  Peter  Viret,  R. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  375 

I57I    *  English  universities  incorporated  by  act  of  Parliament. 
*  Harrow  School  founded. 


157^  Fourth  Religious  War  in  France. 


Massacre  of  French  Protestants  [Huguenots) 

on  St.  Bartholomew's  Day. 
Rejoicings  and  public  thanksgiving  at  Rome. 
Sixty  thousand  Protestants  slaughtered  in  France  in 
the  course  of  thirty  days. 

*  In  England,  laws  against  Nonconformists  enforced. 
Presbytery  of  Wandsworth.  Admonition  to  Parliament 
Episcopacy  in  Scotland. 

#  f  John  Knox,  the  Scotch  Reformer. 
1573        *  In  England,  a  proclamation  against  Nonconformists 
(Puritans). 

*  The  English  Puritans  and  Scotch  Presbyterians 
were  attached  to  the  doctrine,  as  well  as  discipline,  of  the 
Reformed  Church  of  Geneva. 


I574  Henry  III.  King  of  France. 

Fifth  Religious  War  in  France. 


*■  Partial  suppression  of  exercises,  called  Prophesyings, 
in  England. 

Crypto-calvinistic  Controversy. —  Exegesis  perspicua  con- 
troversial de  ccena  Domini,  published  ;  in  which  the  Wit- 
temberg  divines  openly  espouse  the  doctrines  of  Calvin. 
The  elector  of  Saxony  interferes  in  support  of  the  strict 
Lutheran  tenets.  Peucer  and  other  leaders  of  the  Crypto- 
calvinistic  party  are  imprisoned. 


Congregation  of  the  Priests  of  the  Oratory  in  Italy  com- 
pletely formed. 

Faustus  Socinus  begins  to  propagate  his  opinions  at 
Basle. 

B  IB    4 


376  FROM    THE    REFORMATION  (Seventh 

1574  1  John  Campanus,  an  Antitrinitarian  (in  prison). 


Publication  of  the  Magdeburg  Centuries  completed, 
t  George  Major,  L. 


1575  Wars  of  the  Huguenots  in  France  continue. 

*  Increasing  opposition  of  the  Puritans  to  the  Esta- 
blished Church  of  England. 


Jesuits  empowered  to  act  as  censors  of  books. 


Sect  of  the  Alombrades,  or  the  Enlightened,  in  Spain, 
*  Some  Anabaptists  in  London  —  discovered  and  im- 
prisoned.    The  congregation  dispersed. 


Universities  of  Ley  den  and  Altdorf  founded. 
T  Matthias  Flacius  Illyricus,  L.    T  Henry  Bullinger,  R. 


1576        Rodolph   II.    Emperor  of  Germany;   warmly  at- 
tached to  the  Romish  See. 


Jesuit  missions  make  great  progress  in  Japan.  Churches 
built;  schools  founded. 

The  Holy  League  in  France.  The  king  of  Navarre  at 
the  head  of  the  Reformed. 


Tlie  Book  ofTorgaU)  designed  to  put  an  end  to  the 
Crypto-calvinistic  Controversy  in  the  Lutheran  Church 
(revised  and  completed  next  year  at  Berg). 

Some  Lutheran  divines  open  a  correspondence  with 
Jeremiah,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  with  a  view  to 
union ;  without  effect. 


Jesuits  receive  permission  to  practise  medicine. 


Universities  of  Helmstadt  and  Wilna  founded, 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  377 

1577  Sixth  Religious  War  in  France. 


*  Cuthbert  Maine,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  put  to 
death  in  England  for  maintaining  the  power  of  the  Pope 
against  the  authority  of  Elizabeth. 

*  Final  suppression  of  Prophesyings.  The  queen  se- 
questers Grindal,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  confines 
him  to  his  house ;  for^not  being  so  zealous  against  Non- 
conformists as  the  queen  desired. 

#  Presbyterianism  prevails  in  Scotland. 


1578  In  Poland,  continued  dissensions  between  various  Pro- 
testant;  churches  and  parties  give  advantage  to  the 
Romish  cause. 

Rodolph  withdraws  the  liberty  granted  to  the  Protest- 
ants of  Austria  by  Maximilian. 


Faustus  Socinus  in  Transylvania,  upon  the  invitation  of 
Blandrata.  He  disputes  against  Davidis,  first  superin- 
tendent, or  bishop,  of  the  Unitarians  in  Transylvania, 
who  had  adopted  peculiar  tenets  concerning  the  person  of 
Christ,  teaching  that  he  is  only  a  deified  man.  Davidic 
remains  unconvinced,  is  condemned  by  the  Unitarians  as  a 
heretic,  and  thrown  into  prison;  where  he  died  in  1579. 


University  of  Evora  founded. 
#■  English   College    for    education   of  secular  Roman 
Catholic  clergy  at  Rome  founded. 


1579        Union  of  the  northern  provinces  of  the  Netherlands 
at  Utrecht.     William  of  Nassau,  Stadtholder. 

This  Union  of  Utrecht  tends  to  establish  the  Reform- 
ation and  religious  liberty  in  Holland. 


Jansenist  Controversy. — A  new  papal  bull,  directed  against 
the  party  of  Baius. 


378  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1580        Renewed  contests  between  the  Reformed  and  Roman 
Catholics  in  France. 


The  Form  of  Concord  published;  —  containing  the 
three  Creeds,  and  the  following  writings,  recognised  as 
"  symbola  publica  :  "  —  The  Augsburg  Confession,  — 
Apology  for  the  Confession,  —  The  Articles  of  Smal- 
cald,  —  Luther's  Catechisms,  —  and  the  Book  of  Tor- 
gau;  and  a  sentence  of  excommunication  against  all 
who  should  refuse  to  subscribe. 

By  the  Form  of  Concord  the  stamp  of  authority  was 
now  given  anew  to  the  strict  Lutheran  doctrines,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  peculiar  tenets  of  Melanchthon  and  Calvin ; 
but  many  of  the  Lutheran  churches  refused  to  recognise 
this  document,  and  to  receive  it  among  their  symbolical 
books ;  so  that  Crypto-calvinistic  tenets  were  not  en- 
tirely suppressed. 

*  Parsons  and  Campian  in  England. 
Attempts  to  unite  the  Russian  Church  to  the  Romish 
See,  by  Possevin  ;  fruitless. 


Mennonites  acquire  toleration  in  Holland. 
Confession  of  the  Mennonites ;  compiled  by  John  Ries 
and  Lubbert  Gerard. 


Seminary  at  Valladolid  founded,  for  education  of  secu- 
lar clergy.  Other  seminaries  of  the  same  kind  founded 
about  this  time  at  Seville  and  Madrid. 

An  edition  of  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici,  authorised 
by  the  pope.  

The  Flacian  Controversy  runs  high  among  Protestants 
in  Germany. 

1581        The  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands  (Protestant) 
resist  the  power  of  Spain. 


#  Parsons  obliged  to  leave  England.     Campian  put  to 
death  for  denying  the  queen's  supremacy. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  379 

*  Convocation  petitions  the  queen  in  favour  of  Grindal. 
He  was  probably  restored  soon  after.  Parliament  peti- 
tions for  ecclesiastical  reform. 

*  Rise  of  the  Independents,  or  Congregationalists. 


*  Insurrections  in  Ireland,  with  a  view  to  the  re-esta- 
blishment of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and  the  power 
of  the  pope,  in  that  country. 


Reformation  of  the  Calendar. 
Efforts    made   to   obtain   general   acceptance   for   the 
Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the  Belgic  Confession  through- 
out the  Netherlands. 


#■  Rheims  New  Testament. 
University  of  Edinburgh  founded. 


#•  Continued  efforts  of  Seminarists  and  Jesuits  for  the 
restoration  of  the  pope's  supremacy  in  England.  Rebel- 
lions fostered.     Queen's  life  in  danger. 

Whitgift,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  rigorously  en- 
forces the  laws  relating  to  Conformity;  and  demands 
subscription  to  the  Three  Articles. 


t  Z.Ursinus,  R.,  author  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism. 


Seventh  Religious  War  in  Trance. 


f  Cardinal  Borromeo,  Archbishop  of  Milan. 
-#  In  England,  Articles  and  Interrogatories  ex  officio 
mero.     Many  eminent  members  of  the  Church  opposed 
to   these  proceeding.     Articuli  pro   Clero  —  regulations 
affecting  ecclesiastical  discipline. 


Simon  Budaeus,  founder  of  an  Antitrinitarian  party  in 
Lithuania,  excommunicated  and  deprived. 


380  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1585  Embassy  from  Japan  to  the  pope. 


University  of  Franeker  founded ; 

also,  University  of  Gratz  (restored  in  1827). 

*  Richard  Hooker,  Master  of  the  Temple. 


*  Contests  between  Protestants  and  Romanists  in 
England  now  partake  very  much  of  a  political  cha- 
racter. 

*■  Prosecutions  of  Roman  Catholics  in  England  for 
treasonable  attempts  against  the  crown.  Acts  against 
Jesuits  and  Seminary  Priests. 

*  Puritans  urgent  for  reformation  of  ecclesiastical  laws 
and  discipline,  for  the  establishment  of.  a  preaching 
ministry,  revision  of  the  Common  Prayer,  and  inti'oduc- 
tion  of  an  admixture  of  Presbyterian  government. 

*  Rise  of  the  dispute  between  Travers  and  Hooker 
concerning  Church  government. 


1586        *  Babington's  conspiracy  against  Elizabeth,  Queen  of 
England. 

The  pope  (Sixtus  V.)  limits  the  number  of  cardinals 
to  seventy.  

Martyrologium  Romanum. 


t  Martin  Chemnitz,  L. 


1587  *  Execution  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 


*  In  England,  the  efforts  of  Anti-episcopalians  are  suc- 
cessfully resisted  by  the  queen. 


Arminius,  pastor  at  Amsterdam, 
t  Casp.  Olearius,  R. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  381 

Crypto- calvinistic  Controversy  (Lutheran)  very  active. 

Jansenist  Controversy.  —  The  Jesuits  had  now  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  opposing  the  Augustinian  tenets  main- 
tained by  Baius  and  his  friends.  This  year,  the  Theolo- 
gical Faculty  of  Louvain  condemned  thirty-four  Semi- 
pelagian  propositions  from  the  lectures  of  Less  and 
Hamel,  two  Jesuits  of  that  university.  In  the  following 
year  (1588)  appeared  the  celebrated  work  of  the  Jesuit 
Molina  (Liberi  Arbitrii  cum  Gratiae  Donis,  Divina 
Praescientia,  Providentia,  Praedestinatione,  et  Reproba- 
tione  Concordia),  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to  unite 
the  two  systems,  but  with  a  leaning  towards  the  Anti- 
augustinian  doctrines.  The  Augustinian  party  was  dis- 
satisfied with  this  exposition:  and  Molina  was  severely 
assailed,  especially  by  the  Dominicans. 


Baronius  publishes  his  Annates  Ecclesiastici. 
t  Heshusius,  R. 


j"  Valentine  Weigel. 
Henry  IV.  King  of  France. 


Patriarchate  of  Moscow  established. 
#  English  Puritans. — Episcopacy  attacked  by  the  writ- 
ings  of  "  Martin  Marprelate "   and  others.     The  press 
seized.     Cartwright  imprisoned. 


t  Baius  (Michael  de  Bay)  R.  C.  f  Andr.  Dudith,  R.  C. 
Sixtus  repairs  the  Vatican  Library. 


Active  opposition  to  (R.  C.)  Christianity  in  Japan. 


Sixtus  V.,  who  died  this  year,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
last  pope  who  rendered  himself  formidable  to  the  European 
courts. 


U 


38%  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1590        James,  Margrave  of  Baden,  conforms  to  the  Romish 
Church. 

Conferences  at  Baden,  Emmendingen,  and  Stuttgart, 
between  Protestant  and  Romish  divines. 

Oppression  of  Protestants  in  Poland,   under   Sigis- 
mund  II. 


Opposition  to  the  doctrines  of  Predestination,  8fc.  in  the 
Reformed  Church. 

Hence  a  difference  of  opinion  between  the  divines  of 
that  Church/who  defend  those  doctrines  :  Supralapsarians, 
dating  the  decree  of  predestination  before  the  fall ;  and 
Infralapsarians,  contending  that  it  was  made  subse- 
quently. 

Vulgata  Sixti  V. 


|  G.  Blandrata,  an  Antitrinitarian. 


|  James  Andrea?,  L.     "|"  Jerome  Zanchius,  R. 
1591  #  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  founded. 


1592  Visitation  Articles  of  Torgau,  in  support  of  strict  Lu- 
theran doctrines.  Ejectment  of  divines  refusing  to  sub- 
scribe. 

-*■  Legal  establishment  of  the  Presbytery  in  Scotland. 


Crypto-calvinistic  doctrines  suppressed  in  the  Lutheran 
Church. 

Faustus  Socinus,  in  Poland,  gradually  induces  among 
the  Unitarians  of  that  country  a  greater  agreement  of 
opinion  than  had  hitherto  prevailed,  heals  their  divisions, 
and  effects  an  uniformity  of  discipline  and  worship. 

University  of  Paderborn  founded. 
|  Nicholas  Selnecker,  L. 


Period,)  to  the  present  time.  383 

15Q3  Henry  IV.  of  France,  hitherto  a  Protestant,  conforms  to 
the  Church  of  Rome;  but  continues  to  tolerate  Protestants. 
His  ambassadors  afterwards,  at  Rome,  solemnly  abjure 
the  Protestant  faith ;  and  the  pope  grants  absolution  to 
Henry  in  a  humiliating  manner. 


Attempts  to  restore  the  Romish  religion  in  Sweden 
utterly  fail. 

*  In  England,  severe  laws  against  Puritans  and  Roman 
Catholics.  Some  Roman  Catholics  executed  for  treason- 
able practices.  N.B.  During  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  204 
Roman  Catholics  were  put  to  death;  namely,  15  for 
denying  the  queen's  supremacy,  126  for  exercising 
priestly  functions,  and  the  rest  for  being  reconciled  to  the 
Church  of  Rome,  or  aiding  and  assisting  priests.  Also, 
90  died  in  prison,  105  were  banished.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  reign  severe  measures  became  less  necessary,  and 
less  frequent. 

Vulgata  Clementis  VIII. 


#  University  of  New  Aberdeen  founded. 


1595        Index  Tridentinus,  —  i.e.  a  list  of  books  prohibited  by 
the  Council  of  Trent,  —  published. 

-#  Lambeth  Articles. 


#  Predestinarian  Controversy  at  Cambridge. 


f  William  Whitaker,  R. 


1596        Renewed  opposition  to  (R.  C.)  Christianity  in  Japan, 
"f  J.  Bodin,  an  Antichristian  writer. 


University  of  Barcelona  founded. 
"("  Toletus,  a  Jesuit. 


384  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1 597  Jansenist  Controversy.  —  The  pope  appoints  a  body  of 
commissioners  for  the  examination  of  the  questions  in 
dispute :  delegates  from  both  parties  summoned  to  appear 
at  Rome. 

l$gS  Edict  of  Nantes; 

securing    to  French   Protestants  the  free  exercise   of  their 
religion. 

Congregatio  de  Auxiliis   at  Rome,   for  deciding    the 
Molinistic  Controversies. 


T  Benedict  Arias  Montanus,  R.  C. 


1599  Union  of  a  part  of  the  Nestorian  Church,  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  with  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  other  section 
of  that  Church  falls  under  oppression. 


Cen- 
tury. 


,  End  of  The  means  used  by  the  See  of  Rome  to  restore  its 
™_  broken  power,  and  to  check  the  progress  of  the  Reform- 
teenth    ation,  may  be  classed  under  the  following  heads  :  — 

The  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent ;  and  the  con- 
tinued assertion  of  many  high,  but  fabulous,  preten- 
sions. 

The  Inquisition. 

Prohibition  and  expurgation  of  books. 

Missionaries,  Jesuits,  and  Congregations. 

Political  intrigues. 

During  this  century,  persecutions  of  Protestants,  more 
or  less  severe,  were  carried  on  by  the  Romanists,  in  Ger- 
many, Italy,  France,  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  England, 
Scotland,  Hungary,  and  Transylvania. 

In  some  cases,  also,  Protestants  displayed  the  will, 
when  they  had  the  power,  to  persecute  the  members  of 
the  Romish  Church. 


1600 


t  Giordano  Bruno  (Jordanus  Brunus),  a  philosophising 
opponent  of  Christianity. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  385 

*  The  pope  grants  a  pardon  to  the  rebels  in  Ireland,  a 
to  Crusaders. 

1 600        Rise  of  controversy  with  Arminius  at  Amsterdam,  con-  ^ 
cerning  Predestination. 

#  Controversy  in    England  between  the  Jesuits   and 
other  Roman  Catholic  clergy ;  suppressed  by  the  pope. 


Jubilee  at  Rome. 


University  of  Parma  founded. 


t  David  Chytrseus,  L. 


1601  Rodolph  II.  expels  the  Anabaptists  from  Austria. 


1602  The  court  of  Sweden  had  at  different  times  made 
efforts  to  restore  the  Romish  form  of  religion  in  that 
country.  This  year  the  Swedes  depose  Sigismund,  who 
refuses  either  to  conform  to  the  Lutheran  Church  himself, 
or  to  cause  his  son  to  be  educated  in  Protestant  prin- 
ciples. 

f  *  William  Perkins,     "f  Francis  Junius,  R. 


1603  *  James  I.  King  of  Great  Britain. 


Matth.   Ricci,  a  Jesuit,  propagates  a  modification   of 
Christianity  in  China. 


Oppression  of  Protestants  in  Austria. 
#  Millenary  petition,   presented   to   James  after  his 
accession,  by  the  friends  of  the  Puritan  party  in  England. 


A  synod  at  Chap  in   Dauphine    decides  against    the 
opinion  of  John  Piscator,  a  Reformed  divine,  who  main- 

c  c 


386  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

tained  that  the  sufferings  of  Christ  alone  (to  the  exclusion 
of  his  active  obedience)  form  the  ground  of  justification. 

Arminius,  now  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Ley  den,  soon 
enters  into  controversy  ivith  Gomarus,  respecting  the  doc- 
trine of  Absolute  Predestination. 


1603        t   ^Egidius  Hunnius,  L.      j*  Gregory   of  Valentia,  a 
Spanish  Jesuit. 

I60i  Charles  IX.  King  of  Sweden. 

Oppression  of  Protestants  in  Hungary. 


#  Conference  at  Hampton  Court. 
#  Convocation  frames  a  body  of  canons,  which  receive 
the  royal  assent.  Parliament  declares  alienation  of  Church 
property  to  the  crown  illegal ;  renews  statutes  against 
Jesuits,  seminary  priests,  and  recusants.  Roman  Catholics 
and  Puritans  dissatisfied. 


$■  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
A  few  alterations  made  in  the  Common  Prayer,  after  a 
review,  under  James. 


j"  Faustus  Socinus. 


|  Gabriel  Vasquez,  a  Spanish  Jesuit. 


1 60<5  Dispute  of  Clement  VIII.  with  Venice,  respecting  the 
property  of  the  Church,  and  the  exemption  of  the  clergy 
from  secular  jurisdiction.     Paul  Sarpi. 


#  Gunpowder  Plot  in  England,  intended  to  promote 
the  cause  of  the  Roman  Catholics.  The  detection  fol- 
lowed by  severe  statutes  against  Papists,  and  active  pun- 
ishment, amounting  perhaps  to  persecution. 

N.B.  Many  fines  were  levied;  128  priests  banished; 
28  priests  and  7  laymen  put  to  death. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  387 

Flacian  controversies  continue  in  various  parts  of  Ger- 
many. 

Dispute  between  the  divines  of  the  Netherlands  and 
those  of  Holland  respecting  a  proposed  revision  of  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism  and  Belgic  Confession. 


160.5  Racovian  Catechism  published. 


1  Theodore  Beza,  R. 


1 606  Peace  of  Vienna. 


#  The  pope  forbids  the  English  Roman  Catholics  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance. 

The  Lutheran  and  Reformed  in  Hungary  obtain  the 
privilege  of  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  by  the  peace 
of  Vienna. 


(1605  to  1607.)  The  Republic  of  Venice  having  laid 
restrictions  upon  the  clergy,  the  pope  (1605)  demanded 
their  repeal,  under  penalty  of  excommunication  and  inter- 
dict. The  Republic  maintained  its  rights  ;  and,  after  pub- 
lication of  the  interdict,  banished  the  Jesuits  (1606),  who 
were  active  in  support  of  Rome.  The  pope,  having  in 
vain  attempted  to  reduce  the  Republic  to  obedience  by 
force  of  arms,  was  obliged  to  yield ;  and  peace  was  effected 
by  the  mediation  of  France  (1607). 


1 607  Jansenist  Controversy. — The  Pope  dismisses  the  delegates 
of  both  parties  from  Rome,  with  a  promise  to  publish  a 
decision  on  the  disputed  points  at  a  more  convenient  time. 
He  gives  strict  injunctions  that  both  parties  should  refrain 
from  harsh  or  calumniating  language  in  conducting  the 
controversy. 

*  James  I.  King  of  England,  proposed  the  erection  of 
a  college  at  Chelsea  for  the  promotion  of  controversial 
divinity.     The  plan  was  never  fully  carried  into  effect. 

c  c  2 


388 

1607 


J 


1608 


1609 


1610 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 

University  of  Giessen  founded. 


(Seventh 


"("  Cardinal  Ccesar  Baronius. 


Continued  jealousy  and  rivalry  between  Romanists  and 
Protestants  in  Germany. 

"  Evangelical  Union  "  of  German  Protestants, 
under  Frederic.V.  Elector  Palatine. 

*  First  Baptist  Church  in  England  (Arminian). 


"Catholic  League"  under  Maximilian,  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  —  a  union  of  Romanist  princes  in  Germany 
against  the  Protestants. 

Protestants  in  Austria  recover  some  degree  of  religious 
liberty. 


Public  conference  between  Arminius  and  Gomarus.  After 
the  death  of  Arminius,  his  opinions  continue  to  spread 
rapidly.  Uytenbogaert  and  Episcopius  at  the  head  of  the 
Arminian  party. 

"f  Arminius  ( Harm  sen ;  Germ.  Hermann),  R. 


#  Douay  version  of  the  Bible. 


Louis  XIII.  King  of  France. 
t  Matth.  Ricci,  R.  C.  Missionary  in  China. 
Jesuit  Missions  in  Paraguay. 


Independents  in  Holland. 

#  John  Robinson  and  Henry  Jacob  found  the  New  In- 
dependents in  England. 

Paul  V.  confirms  the  bull  In  Ccend  Domini. 

#  In  Scotland,  episcopacy  begins  to  gain  ground.  James 
establishes  a  court  of  ecclesiastical  commission. 


The  Arminian  divines  deliver  their  Remonstrance  to 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  389 

the   States  of  Holland ;  hence  called  Remonstrants,  and 
their  (Calvinist)  opponents  Contra-remonstrants. 


1610  J.  Gerhard's  Loci  Theologici. 

"I"  Thomas  Sanchez,  a  Jesuit. 


1611  Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden. 


Conference  at  the  Hague,  between    Remonstrants  and 
Contra-remonstrants ;  without  effect. 


Jansenist  Controversy.  —  The  pope  commands  strict 
silence  respecting  the  points  which  had  hitherto  been  so 
fiercely  debated. 

Rosicrucians  in  Germany. 


#■  Present  authorised  English  Translation  of  the  Bible 
printed. 

T  Antony  Possevin,  an  Italian  Jesuit. 


16 12  Matthias,  Emperor  of  Germany. 


Another  outbreak  against   the  (R,  C.)  Christian  com- 
munities in  Japan. 


Discord  between  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  in  Ger- 
many fomented  by  the  Jesuits.  Jealousy  between  the  German 
Evangelical  and  Reformed  Churches. 
\Q\<%  *  Episcopacy  in  Scotland. 


Laws  against  Anabaptists  in  the  Canton  of  Zurich. 


*  Charter  House  founded, 
c  c  3 


390  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1613        Conference  at  Delft,  between  Remonstrants  and  Con- 
tra-remonstrants;  without  effect. 


Order  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Oratory,  or  The  Congregation 
of  the  Priests  of  the  Oratory  of  Jesus  in  France,  founded  by 
Berulle  in  1611,  confirmed  by  Paul  V. 


George  Calixtus,  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Helmstadt. 


Disputes  between  the  pope  and  France  respecting  the 
positions  advanced  by  the  Jesuit,  Francis  Suarez,  concern- 
ing the  papal  power  over  temporal  princes. 


1614        The  elector  of  Brandenburg  conforms  to  the  Reformed 
Church. 


Church  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome   complete   (begun  in 
1506). 

University  of  Groningen  founded. 


1615  The  Reformed  (or  Calvinian)  tenets  supplant  those  of  the 
Evangelical  (or  Lutheran)  Church,  in  many  parts  of  Ger- 
many. 

The  writings  of  Arndt,  Gerhard,  and  others,  operate  in 
Germany  as  a  wholesome  remedy  against  the  effects  of  the 
prevailing  cold  and  lifeless  orthodoxy,  and  assist  in  pro- 
moting vital  and  practical  religion, 

J.  V.  Andrese  exposes  the  corruptions  of  Lutheran 
theology. 

In  Spain,  the  controversy  concerning  the  Immaculate 
Conception  of  the  Virgin  renewed  between  Dominicans 
and  Franciscans. 


Crypto-socinianism  at  Altdorf;  suppressed. 


1616        Violent  opposition   to    (R.  C.)   Christianity  in  Japan, 
occasioned  by  misconduct  of  a  Jesuit.    Churches  destroyed. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  391 

Marcus  Antonius  de  Dominis,  Archbishop  of  Spalatro 
and  Primate  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia,  in  England,  — 
renounces  the  errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  con- 
forms to  the  Church  of  England.  He  writes  against 
papal  error  (De  Republica  Ecclesiastica). 

Constitution  of  the  Church  of  the  United  Brethren  settled 
by  the  Synod  of  Zerawitz. 

%  A  second  Baptist  Church  in  London  (Calvinistic). 


Order  of  the  Piarists  (or  Fathers  of  Religious  Schools) 
founded,  confirmed,  and  extended,  during  the  papacy  of 
Paul  V.  This  order,  designed  for  the  instruction  of 
youth,  became  peculiarly  obnoxious  to  the  Jesuits. 


f  Leonard  Hutter,  L. 


#  In  Scotland,  the  Assembly  of  St.  Andrew's  consults 
about  the  introduction  of  a  liturgy. 


T  Francis  Suarez,  a  Spanish  Jesuit. 


In  Bohemia,  the  Protestants,  finding  themselves  unable 
to  endure  tyrannical  and  aggressive  measures  any  longer, 
take  up  arms.     Such  was  the 

Commencement  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  political  and 
religious. 

The  Prince  of  Orange  sides  with  the  Dutch  Contra- 
remonstrants. 


*  In  Scotland,  Articles  of  Perth,  by  the  Assembly,  in 
favour  of  ecclesiastical  rites  and  ceremonies. 


Order  of  the  Salesianerins  [of  the  Visitation  of  our  Lady) 
founded  by  Francis  de  Sales. 

*  In  England,  the  king  (James  I.)  issues  a  proclam- 
ation in  favour  of  liberty  and  amusements  on  the  Lord's 
day  (Book  of  Sports). 

Congregation  of  St.  Maur  founded, 
c  c  4 


V 


392  from  the  reformation  {Seventh 

(Reformation-union    of   Benedictine    monasteries    in 
France.) 


1618  j"  J.  Volket,  an  Antitrinitarian. 


f  Cardinal  J.  D.  Duperron. 


(1618,  1619.)    Synod  of  Dort. 

(Belgic  Confession  and  Heidelberg  Catechism,  the 
symbols  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  Holland.) 

Toleration  refused  to  the  Remonstrants,  until  1630. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Remonstrants  are  condemned, 
and  the  Calvinistic  scheme  approved,  by  the  Synod  of 
Dort.  Doctrine  of  Absolute  Predestination  asserted,  but 
without  affirmation  of  supralapsarian  tenets. 

*  The  Church  of  England  gave  countenance  to  the  de- 
crees of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  Calvinistic  tenets  now  pre- 
vail in  that  Church. 


1619  Ferdinand  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Barneveld,  Grand  Pensioner  of  Holland,  put  to  death. 


t  J.  Heilbrunner,  L. 


1 620  Battle  of  Prague 


Protestants  in  Bohemia  defeated  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic forces  of  the  League. 

Ferdinand  II.  under  the  influence  of  Jesuits,  designs  the 
overthrow  of  the  Protestant  religion  in  Germany. 


Suppression  of  the  Evangelical  religion  in  Austria. 
*  The  English  Baptists  present  a  Confession  of  Faith 
to  the  king  and  parliament. 


nourishing  period  of  the  Socinian  societies  in  Poland,  and 
the  Unitarians  in  Transylvania. 


Period)  to  the  present  time.  393 


1621 


1622 


Buxtorf  asserts  the  high  antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  vowel 
points. 

Philip  IV.  King  of  Spain. 


Renewal  of  the  war  between  Spain  and  the  Nether- 
lands. 

War  between  French  Protestants  and  Louis  XIII. 


Cyril  Lucaris,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  endeavours  to 
effect  an  union  between  the  Greek  and  Protestant  Churches, 
The  Evangelical  Union  dissolved. 


Universities  of  Saltzburg  (R.  C),  and  Rinteln  founded. 


f  John  Arndt,  L.      "\  Daniel  Chamer,  R.     f  Cardinal 
Robert  Bellarmin. 


#■  British  missionaries,  especially  Independents  and 
Presbyterians,  actively  employed  in  propagating  the  Gos- 
pel in  the  Anglo-American  colonies  (John  Elliot). 


Congregatio  de  Propaganda  Fide  founded  at  Rome 
by  Gregory  XV. 

Marcus  Antonius  de  Dominis  returns  to  communion 
with  the  Romish  Church,  and  retracts  his  published  opi- 
nions. (In  1623,  at  Rome,  he  was  thrown  into  prison, 
where  he  died,  1624;  afterwards  burnt  in  effigy.) 

*  In  England,  James  issues  a  proclamation  for  releasing 
Popish  recusants;  and  in  general  shows  some  favour  to- 
wards Roman  Catholics.  These  measures  extremely  un- 
popular. 

Arminian  Confession,  composed  by  Episcopius. 
Lutherans  driven  out  of  Bohemia. 


f  Valentine  Schwaltz,  Socinian. 


t  David  Pareus,  R.      f  Francis  de  Sales,  R.  C. 


894  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

loQo  Ignatius  Loyola  canonized. 


The  sect  of  the  Alombrades,  the  Enlightened,  re-appears 
in  Spain.     Suppressed  by  the  Inquisition. 


j  Paolo  Sarpi,  author  of  the  History  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  R.  C. 

1624  Successes  of  the  Imperialists. 


Erpenius  edites  the  work  of  Capellus  against  the  anti- 
quity of  the  Hebrew  points. 


t  J.  Gretser,  R.  C, 
T  J.  Bohme,  a  theosophist. 


1625  *  Charles  I.  King  of  Great  Britain 


o 


University  of  Mantua  founded. 


t  Paul  Laymann,  a  Jesuit. 


#  Episcopacy  increasingly  unpopular  in  Scotland;  a 
consequence  of  the  tyranny  and  oppression  of  the  ruling 
party. 

1626        League  of  Holland,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  German 
Protestants  against  the  Emperor. 

*  In  England,  Charles  endeavours  to  make  the  Church 
an  instrument  of  raising  money  in  support  of  the  State. 


The  new  Convent  of  Port  Royal  de  Paris  founded  by 
the  Abbess  Arnauld  (see  1233). 


Religious  liberty  formally  granted  to   the  Mennonites 
in  Holland. 


Period.)  TO  the  tresent  time.  395 


1626 


t  *  John  Robinson.     |  Balth.  Meisner,  L. 


Continuation  of  religious  wars  in  France. 


Urban  VIII.  publishes  the  bull  In  Coend  Domini,  in  its 
present  form. 

Seminarium  (Collegium)  pro  Propaganda  Fide. 

Persecution  of  Protestants  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 

#  In  England,  the  Established  Church  is  employed  as  a 
tool  for  the  support  of  the  arbitrary  power  of  Charles  and 
his  court. 


*  Arminian  tenets  now  begin  to  prevail  among  the 
clergy  of  the  Church  of  England.  They  are  held  gene- 
rally by  the  dignitaries  of  the  Church. 


t  Balth.  Menzer,  L. 


Adam  Schall  succeeds  Ricci  in  China,  and  carries  on 
the  work  of  conversion.  Many  churches ;  some  accounts 
say  that  more  than  half  a  million  of  the  Chinese  now  bore 
the  Christian  name. 


*  A  declaration  prefixed  to  a  new  edition  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  of  Religion  in  England,  forbidding  all  per- 
sons to  interpret  them  in  any  but  the  grammatical  sense. 


T  Wolf.  Franz,  L. 

Overwhelming  power  of  the  emperor.      Wallenstein. 

The  emperor  publishes  an  Edict  of  Restitution,  by 
which  the  German  Protestants  were  compelled  to  restore 
the  property  of  ecclesiastical  foundations  originally  held 
by  the  Church  of  Rome;  and  the  "  religious  peace"  was 
declared  to  relate  only  to  those  who  subscribed  the  Con- 
fession of  Augsburg. 


Vanini  burnt,  for  atheism,  at  Toulouse. 


396  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1630        France  in  alliance  with   Gustavus  Adolphus  against 
the  emperor,  in  favour  of  the  German  Protestants. 

Missions  to  Lapland  warmly  supported  by  Sweden  and 
Denmark. 

#  Sabbatarian  Controversy  in  England. 


1631 


Collegiants,  or  Rhynsburgians,   separatists    from   the 
Dutch  Remonstrants  (now  extinct). 


"j"  *  Robert  Browne,  Independent. 


1632 


Gustavus  defeats  the  Imperialists  under  Tilly  at 
Leipsic. 

Magdeburg  destroyed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  forces 
under  Tilly. 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  after  his  victory  at  Leipsic,  restores 
the  Evangelical  worship,  which  had  been  interrupted  in 
the  South  of  Germany. 

Dominicans  arrive  in  China.  Displeased  with  the 
concessions  made  by  the  Jesuits  to  heathen  superstition. 
Rise  of  the  controversy  between  the  two  parties  in  that 
country. 

Remonstrants  begin  to  establish  themselves  in  Holland. 

Conferences  between  divisions  of  the  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed Churches  of  Leipsic. 

End  of  the  Catholic  League. 


Order  of  Priests  of  the  Missions,  founded  by  Vincent 
de  Paul  in  1624,  confirmed  by  the  pope.  (Home  mission- 
aries of  the  Romish  Church,  charged  especially  with  the 
care  of  the  sick,  both  bodily  and  spiritual ;  Lazarists.) 


Gustavus    Adolphus   defeats  Wallenstein  at  Lutzen 
but  dies  in  the  arms  of  victory.     Sweden  continues  th- 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  397 

war  on  behalf  of  the  Protestants,  under  the  conduct  of 
the  Chancellor  Oxenstiern. 


*  In  England,  feoffees  of  impropriations  exchequered, 
and  the  property  forfeited  to  the  crown. 


Union  of  the  Mennonites  at  Dort. 


University  of  Dorpat  founded  (restored  in  1802). 


Assassination  of  Wallenstein. 


*  The  English  Baptists,  as  a  distinct  church  or  deno- 
mination, now  form  a  considerable  body. 


*  In  England,  the  king  (Charles  I.)  publishes  his 
Book  of  Sports,  a  renewal  of  the  proclamation  of  James 
concerning  liberty  and  amusements  on  the  Lord's 
day. 

Laud,  now  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  zealous  in  en- 
forcing the  observance  of  ecclesiastical  ceremonies,  and 
in  adding  to  their  number.  A  few  alterations  made  in 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  during  this  reign ;  but  un- 
important. 

Edmund  Richer,  R.  C. 


j"  John  Crell,  a  Socinian  leader 


Jesuits  expelled  from  Abyssinia. 


The  plans  of  Cyril  Lucaris,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
for  an  union  of  the  Greek  and  Protestant  Churches,  are 
thwarted  by  the  influence  of  Jesuits. 

#  Synod  of  Dublin. 
Flourishing  period  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  France. 


1/ 


398  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

Grounds  of  the  Syncretistic  Controversy.  —  Calixtus, 
Professor  of  Divinity  at  Helmstadt,  maintains  that  the  con- 
sent of  catholic  antiquity,  i.  e.  the  agreement  of  the  Primi- 
tive Church  during  the  first  five  centuries,  ought  to  be 
regarded  as  a  secondary  rule  of  faith,  subordinate  only  to 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  He  begins  to  be  suspected  of  a 
leaning  towards  the  Romish  doctrine  of  Tradition. 


1634  Order  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  founded. 


1635        University  of  Tyrnau   founded   (removed  to  Pest  in 

1777). 
1686  University  of  Utrecht  founded. 


1637  Ferdinand  III.  Emperor  of  Germany. 


*•  Repeated  severities  in  England,  with  a  view  to  up- 
hold the  authority  of  the  Church  and  court,  produce  great 
dissatisfaction  and  disgust. 

*  Charles  endeavours  to  force  a  new  liturgy  upon  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  Great  opposition,  and  popular 
tumults. 


t  *  Nicholas  Ferrar.     *  John  Gerhard,  L. 


1638  Cyril  Lucaris  put  to  death. 

#  Scotland.  —  General  Assembly  at  Glasgow.  Dissolved 
by  the  king's  commissioner,  but  continues  its  sittings,  and 
rescinds  all  that  had  been  established  since  1605,  namely, 
Episcopacy,  the  Articles  of  Perth,  the  Canons,  and  the 
Liturgy.  The  Covenant  signed  in  Edinburgh.  Civil 
war.     The  king  obliged  to  make  peace. 


The  Convent  of  Port  Royal  in  great  repute.  Many 
religious  and  learned  men  settle  near  it,  and  devote  them- 
selves to  a  life  of  literary  and  religious  pursuits,  as  lay- 
brethren.  It  becomes  a  nursery  of  Jansenist  or  Anti- 
jesuit  principles. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  399 


1638 


Some  Socinian  students  at  Racow  having  insulted  the 
Roman  Catholics  in  the  public  exercise  of  their  religion, 
the  latter  cause  their  places  of  worship  to  be  shut  up, 
their  press  stopped,  and  their  schools  closed. 


|  Cornelius  Jansenius,  R.  C. 


Rise  of  the  Syncretistic  Controversy  in  the  Lutheran 
Church.  Busher  publishes  an  attack  upon  Calixtus,  as  a 
secret  papist. 

Dispute  between  the  Pope  and  John  IV.  of  Portugal ; 
the  former  refuses  to  confirm  the  bishops  appointed  by 
the  king. 

*  The  Long  Parliament  of  England  meets. 


#  In  England,  the  Convocation  frames  violent  canons, 
under  Laud,  including  that  enjoining  the  Et  caetera  oath 
against  innovation.  There  were  now  three  principal 
parties  in  England  with  reference  to  Church  matters  :  — 
1.  The  high  episcopalians.  2.  The  moderate  episcopa- 
lians. 3.  The  anti-episcopalians,  or  presbyterians.  The 
extreme  measures  of  Laud  contribute  to  increase  the 
ranks  of  the  latter.  The  Long  Parliament  makes  various 
attacks  upon  the  Church. 

*  Convocation  directs  that  every  preacher  shall  enforce 
in  his  sermons,  twice  a  year,  conformity  to  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Established  Church. 


This  year  was  published  the  celebrated  posthumous 
work  of  Jansenius,  entitled  Augustinus,  seu  Doctrina 
Augustini  de  Humanae  Naturae  Sanitate,  iEgritudine, 
Medicina,  adversus  Pelagianos  et  Massilienses. 

The  Jansenist  Controversy,  henceforth  properly  so  called, 
acquires  fresh  life  and  bitterness  by  the  publication  of 
this  work.  The  Jesuits  make  a  violent  attack  upon  the 
book. 


400  from  the  reformation  {Seventh 

lt)40  University  of  Abo  in  Finland. 


Dutch  missionaries  labour  during  this  century  in  Brazil, 
and  in  the  East  Indies,  especially  in  Ceylon. 


1641  *  Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford. 


*  Massacre  of  Protestants  in  Ireland. 
*  Protest  of  the  English  bishops  against  the  proceed- 
ings of  Parliament.  The  bishops  sent  to  the  Tower  on 
a  charge  of  high  treason.  Episcopacy  overthrown.  Arch- 
bishop Usher  proposes  a  plan  for  combining  Episcopacy 
with  the  Presbytery. 

Baxter  lectures  at  Kidderminster. 


H.  Grotius,   Annotationes  in  Vetere  et  Novo   Testa- 
mento. 

|  Francis  Gomarus,  R. 


1642  *  August  25.- — Commencement  of  the  English  rebellion 
and  civil  war.  The  king's  standard  raised  at  Notting- 
ham. October  23. — Battle  of  Edgehill.  Head-quarters  of 
the  Royalists  at  Oxford.     Battle  of  Brentford. 


*  The  English  bishops  deprived  of  their  votes  and  of 
their  property.  The  Councils  of  Star  Chamber  and  Ec- 
clesiastical Commission  suppressed. 


The  pope  publishes  a  bull,  repeating  his  predecessor's 
prohibition  concerning  the  Jansenist  Controversy,  and  con- 
taining orders  for  the  suppression  of  the  work  of  Jansenius, 
and  all  defences  of  the  same.  Notwithstanding  this,  a  large 
and  influential  party  of  divines  in  France  undertake  a  de- 
fence of  the  opinions  of  Augustin  and  Jansenius  (Ant. 
Arnauld). 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  401 

f  Henry  Hoepper,  L. 


Louis  XIV.  King  of  France. 
*  English  Civil  War.    Parliament  take  Reading.    Hop- 
ton  takes  Bristol.      The  king  besieges  Gloucester  :  siege 
raised.     Battle    of  Newbury.     The   king    retires    upon 
Oxford. 


Orthodox  Confession  or  the  Greek  Church, 
drawn  up  by  Peter  Mogelas,  Metropolitan  of  Kiev,  re- 
ceived by  the  Church  at  Constantinople,  and  subscribed 
by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
Jerusalem,  and  Moscow. 

*  In  England,  Assembly  of  Divines  nominated  by  Par- 
liament met  at  Westminster.  The  solemn  league  and 
covenant  taken  by  the  Parliament,  having  been  forced 
upon  them  by  the  Scotch. 

The  Assembly  of  Divines  consisted  chiefly  of  Presby- 
terians, with  some  Episcopalians,  and  a  few  Independents. 
The  works  published  by  the  assembly  were,  a  Directory 
for  Worship  and  Ordination,  a  Confession  of  Faith,  and 
two  Catechisms,  the  larger  and  the  shorter. 


Syncretistic  Controversy. — Conrad  Horneius,  a  friend  of 
Calixtus,  affirms  the  necessity  of  good  works  to  salvation. 
*  Antinomian  Controversy  in  England  (Crisp's  works). 


The  number  of  Holy  Days  abridged  by  a  papal  bull. 
"  Acta  Sanctorum  "  begun  at  Antwerp  by  the  Jesuits 
Bolland,  Henschen,  and  Papebroch,  continued  by  others. 
t  Nich.  Hunnius,  L.     "j"  John  Uytenbogaert,  R. 


1644  *  English  Civil  War. —  Battle  of  Marston  Moor.  Sur- 
render of  York.  Defeat  of  the  Earl  of  Essex.  Second 
battle  of  Newbury. 


Dionysius  Petavius  (Theologica  Dogmata), 
n  T) 


402  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1644  t  *  William    Chillingworth.         |  Henry    Alting,   R. 
"j*  Simon  Episcopius,  R. 

1645  Prince  of  Conde  and  Marshal  Turenne  defeat  the  Im- 
perialists at  Nordlingen. 

#  English  Civil  War. —  Battle  of  Naseby. 


Conference  at  Thorn,  between  the  Polish  Roman 
Catholics  and  Dissidents;  without  effect. 

*  Laud  beheaded.     The  Directory  introduced. 

N.B.  The  Presbytery  was  established  only  in  London 
and  Lancashire,  and  was  always  subject  to  Parliament. 
The  power  of  the  Presbyterians  was  quickly  superseded 
by  that  of  the  Independents. 


1646 


The  Syncretistic  Controversy  receives  a  fresh  impulse  in 
consequence  of  some  expressions  of  Calixtus  at  Thorn,  in 
which  he  is  thought  to  favour  the  doctrines  of  the  Re- 
formed or  Calvinistic  Church  rather  than  those  of  the 
Evangelical  or  Lutheran. 

The  Lutheran  Church  gradually  forms  itself  into  two 
parties,  violently  opposed  to  each  other,  namely,  on  the 
one  hand,  Calixtus  and  his  followers,  chiefly  at  Helmstadt 
and  Konigsberg ;  and,  on  the  other,  the  divines  of  the  Elec- 
torate of  Saxony,  under  the  lead  of  Hulsemann  of  Leipsic, 
Weller  of  Dresden,  and  the  celebrated  Abraham  Calov  of 
Wittemberg. 

John  Muraeus  and  Salomon  Glassius  endeavour  to 
reconcile  conflicting  opinions. 


#  Anabaptists  ;    Antinomians ;    Familists  ;    Fifth   Mo- 
narchy Men ;  in  England. 


f  Matthew  Hoe,  L.     *  Hugo  Grotius,  R. 


*  English   Civil  War.  —  The  king  surrenders  to  the 
Parliament. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  403 

1646        The  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  on  the  coast  of  Malabar, 
renounce  their  connection  with  the  Romish  Church. 

*  Confession  of  Faith  of  seven  Baptist  churches  in 
London. 


#  English  Civil  War. — The  king  seized  by  Joyce.  His 
escape  from  Hampton  Court.  Imprisonment  in  Caris- 
brook  Castle.      R 

*  The  Westminster  Confession  approved  by  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  (ratified  by  an  act  of 
the  Scottish  Parliament  in  1649). 


*  George  Fox  begins  to  preach. 


University  of  Bamberg  founded. 


Philip  IV.  recognises  the  Independence  of  the  Nether-       ^ 
lands. 

Peace  of  Westphalia, 
by  which  the  German  Protestants  are  confirmed  in  the 
rights  ceded  to  them  by  the  religious  peace  of  Augsburg, 
which  are  declared  to  extend  alike  to  the  Reformed  and 
Lutheran  Churches ;  and  all  things  placed  upon  the  foot- 
ing of  the  year  1624,  with  respect  to  the  possessions  of 
Protestant  princes.  Edict  of  Restitution  revoked.  End  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

The  pope  issues  a  bull  declaring  the  provisions  of  this 
treaty  null  and  void ;  but  his  attempts  against  it  prove 
abortive. 


University  of  Harderuck  founded. 
Leo  Allatius,   De  Ecclesiae  Occidentalis  et   Orientalis 
Perpetua  Consensione. 

\  John  Quistorp,  L. 
j*  *  Lord  Herbert,  of  Cherbury,  a  deistical  writer. 


*  Charles  I.  King  of  England,  beheaded. 
(#  Interregnum  and  Usurpation.) 


d  d  2 


404 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 


(Seventh 


1649 


v 


1650 


*  In  England,  the  Parliament  ejects  many  Presbyterian 
ministers  by  imposing  the  Engagement.  Bill  passed,  "  For 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Wales." 


1651 


*  Society  of  Friends^  commonly  called  Quakers,  founded 
by  George  Fox. 

Fox  imprisoned  this  year  at  Nottingham. 


|  Frederick  Spanheim,  R.  f  G.  J.  Vossius,  R.  f  Stephen 
Bauny,  a  Jesuit. 

Jansenist  Controversy. 
The  Jesuits  having  selected  from  the  works  of  Janse- 
nius  six  propositions,  which  they  declare  to  be  heretical, 
a  body  of  French  bishops,  eighty-five  in  number,  petition 
the  pope  this  year  to  define  the  sense  in  which  those 
propositions  may  really  be  regarded  as  such.  Eleven 
other  bishops  protest  against  this  appeal,  or  reference, 
as  contrary  to  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church.  The 
pope  contents  himself  with  publishing  a  bull  (in  1653) 
simply  condemning  five  of  the  six  propositions.  The 
Jansenists  continued  to  maintain  their  tenets,  on  the 
ground  that  the  propositions  were  not  contained  in  the 
works  of  Jansenius  in  the  sense  in  which  they  were  con- 
demned by  the  pope. 

L.  Capellus  ;   Critica  Sacra. 
(|  Rene  des  Cartes.) 


The  Cartesian  philosophy  begins  to  exercise  a  deteriorating 
influence  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Fleformed  Church, 


Christianity  is  now  entirely  banished  from  Japan. 


*   English    Civil   War. — Charles  II.  crowned  at  Scone. 
Battle  of  Worcester. 


t  Andrew  Rivet,  R.     f  J.  Sirmond,  R.  C. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.1  405 

1652  Capuchin  Mission  to  the  interior  of  Africa. 


The  landgrave  "of  Hesse  Rheinfels  conforms    to  the 
Romish  Church. 


#  Henry  Hammond  defends  the  Anglican  doctrine  of 
Episcopacy  against  Blondel. 


f  Dionysius  Petavius  (Denys  Petau)  R.  C. 


The  Lutheran  churches  are  now  distinguished  by 
barren  orthodoxy  and  futile  controversies.  Powerful  ex- 
hibitions and  applications  of  the  doctrines  and  duties  of 
Christianity,  by  which  the  era  immediately  succeeding 
the  Reformation  was  characterised,  have  given  place  to 
cold  or  captious  accuracy  of  statement,  and  jealous  de- 
fence of  received  opinions. 

*  Controversies  relating  to  Baptism  active  in  England 
from  1649  to  167?. 


The  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary  cultivated  with  pecu- 
liar zeal  in  Spain. 


1 653        *  Oliver  Cromwell,  Protector  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland. 


During  the  Usurpation,  toleration  is  not  extended  to 
Roman  Catholics  and  Jews. 


Buxtorf's  Anticritica  ;   against  Capellus. 
f  Claud.  Salmasius  (Saumaise),  R. 


1654  Charles  X.  (Gustavus)  King  of  Sweden. 


#  In  England,  the  Committee  of  Triers  appointed. 
(Church  government  had  hitherto  been  carried  on  by 
the  Assembly  under  Parliament.) 


d  d  3 


406  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1654  *  First  Meeting  of  Quakers  in  London. 


|  J.  V.  Andreas,  L. 


Struggles  between  the  kings  of  Portugal  and  the  popes 
from  1640  to  1670. 


1655  The  form  of  Presbyterian  Church  government  and 
ordination  (agreed  upon  by  the  Westminster  Assembly  in 
1649)  ratified  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Kirk  of 
Scotland. 


Abraham  Calov,  Systema  Locorum  Theologicorum. 

University  of  Duisburg  founded. 
[  *  James    Usher,  Archbishop  of  Armagh.     j"  David 
Blondel,  R. 


Syncretistic  Controversy.  —  Consensus  Repetitus  Fidei 
vere  Lutheranas  prepared,  as  an  antidote  against  the 
opinions  of  Calixtus ;  published  in  1664.  (1656.  f  G. 
Calixtus ;  controversy  continued  by  his  son,  Frederic 
Calixtus.)  Ernest,  Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha,  endeavours  to 
effect  a  pacification,  supported  by  Seckendorf.  He  lends 
his  countenance  to  a  plan  for  establishing  a  Collegium 
Jrenicum  or  Pacificatorium. 
1656  Jansenist  Controversy.  —  Machinations  of  Jesuits  and 
Dominicans  against  the  Jansenists.  Arnauld  expelled 
from  the  Sorbonne.  Blaise  Pascal  begins  to  attack  the 
Jesuits.  (False  moral  principles  held  by  the  Jesuits  in 
general — that  a  good  intention  makes  a  good  act;  mental 
reservation ;  distinction  between  philosophical  and  actual 
(or  theological)  sin;  probabilism;  efficacy  of  slight  or 
even  feigned  repentance.) 

The  pope  (Alexander  VII.)  declares  that  the  five 
condemned  propositions  are  contained  in  the  works  of 
Jansenius,  and  in  the  sense  affixed  to  them  when  so  con- 
demned. The  court  of  France  unites  with  the  pope 
against  the  Jansenists. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  407 


1656 


Lettres  Provinciates  of  Blaise  Pascal,  under  the  name 
of  Louis  de  Montalte. 

f  *  Joseph  Hall5  Bishop  of  Norwich.  *  George  Calix- 
tus,  L.     |  J.  Feuerborn,  L.     f  Salomon  Glass,  L. 


#  During   the    Usurpation,    several   individuals   were 
punished  for  heterodoxy  in  England. 


Leopold  I.  Emperor  of  Germany* 
Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  independent. 


In  France,  the  Jesuits  work  upon  the  mind  of  Louis  X., 
to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  that 
country. 

The  Patriarchate  of  Moscow  independent  of  Constan- 
tinople. 

f  J.  B.  Carpzov,  L. 

*  Declaration  of  the  Faith  and  Order  owned  and  prac- 
tised in  the  Congregational  Churches  in  England ;  agreed 
upon  and  consented  to  by  their  elders  and  messengers  in 
their  meeting  at  the  Savoy. 


Edict  against  the  Socinians  in  Poland,  as  being  not 
dissidentes  de  religione,  but  dissidentes  a  religione.  All 
Socinians  obliged  to  quit  Poland  within  three  years. 
Some  found  refuge  in  Prussia;  others  associated  with  the 
Arminians  in  the  Low  Countries;  but,  for  the  most  part, 
they  betook  themselves  to  the  Unitarians  of  Transyl- 
vania, who  gave  them  a  friendly  reception,  and  with 
whom  they  became  incorporated. 


|  P.  Du  Moulin,  R. 

D  D    4 


408  TitoM  the   reformation  (Seventh 

Controversy   of  Coccelus   with  Maresius  and  Voetius 
respecting  the  Sabbath . 


*  Anglo-American  missionaries  propagate  the  Gospel 
among  the  North  American  Indians.     John  Elliot. 


1659        t  J-  G.  Dorsch,  L.     "f  Curcellseus,  a  Remonstrant. 


1660  #  Charles  II.  King  of  England  (Restoration), 


$■  Episcopacy  restored  in  England.  —  Petition  of  the 
Nonconformists.  Answer  of  the  bishops.  Declaration 
of  the  kinff. 


Critici  Sacri. 
"\  *  Henry  Hammond.     f  Vincent  de  Paul,  R.  C. 


l66l  *  The  English  Convocation  grants  a  subsidy  to  the 
king.  The  last  tax  of  this  nature  paid  by  the  English 
clergy.  Convocation  henceforth  exists  merely  in  name 
and  form. 

Conference  at  Cassel,  for  union  of  Reformed  and  Evan- 
gelical Churches ;  ineffectual.  It  was,  however,  agreed 
that  the  differences  between  the  two  churches  do  not 
affect  the  foundation  of  faith. 

*  Savoy  Conference.      Corporation  Act. 


Among  the  Dutch  Remonstrants  (followers  of  Grotius 
and  Episcopius)  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  Christianity 
gradually  disappear. 


*  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  —  Last  revision  of 
the  Liturgy,  by  Convocation.  After  some  slight  alterations 
by  Parliament,  it  was  legally  authorized,  August  24.  1662. 
And  thus  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  as  we  now  use  it, 
was  complete. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  409 

1661        t  *  Bryan  Walton,   Bishop   of  Chester,      f  J.  Hulse- 
mann,  L.     "j"  J,  C.  Daunhauer,  L. 


j*  Jonas  Schlichting,  a  Socinian  leader. 


Dispute  between  the  pope  and  the  king  of  France. 
The  pope  sues  for  pardon. 

*■  Act  of  Uniformity.  —  Two  thousand  nonconforming 
ministers  ejected  on  the  24th  of  August.  Great  severity 
and  injustice  on  the  part  of  the  ruling  powers.  Calamy 
and  Baxter  imprisoned. 

*  Episcopacy  restored  in  Scotland. 


t  J.  Weller,   L.     |  Blaise   Pascal,   R.  C.      j  Peter  de 
Marca,  R.  C. 

f  *  John  Biddle,  an  English  Arian. 


Louis  XIV.  establishes  a  missionary  college  in  Paris, 
especially  for  China. 

#  Select  Vestry  Act. 


T  Theoph.  Raynaud,  R.  C. 


The  Reformed  Church  in  France,  for  the  most  part, 
adheres  to  the  doctrines  of  Calvin  respecting  Predestina- 
tion, &c.  But  some  divines  of  that  communion  (e.g. 
Amyraldus,  and  others)  had  mitigated  the  doctrine,  by 
drawing  a  distinction  between  general  and  special  grace. 
Their  positions  were  opposed  by  Spanheim ;  but  the  Re- 
formed Synods  of  Alencon  (in  1637)  and  Charenton  (in 
1644,  1645)  refused  to  condemn  them  as  at  variance 
with  the  received  doctrines.  Their  tenets  (imiversal- 
ismus  hypotheticus)  were  subsequently  adopted  by  many 
members  of  that  Church. 


41°  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1664  *  First  Conventicle  Act. 


De  Ranee  founds  the  order  of  La  Trappe. 


Further  divisions  among  the  Waterland  Mennonites ;  re- 
lating primarily  to  the  doctrine  of  absolute  predestina- 
tion. The  one  party,  called  Apostoolians,  Sonnists,  or 
Mennonite  Baptists ;  the  other,  Galenists,  Lammists,  or 
Remonstrant  Baptists. 

f  *  Samuel  Fisher,  a  Quaker. 
*  The   Society  of  Friends  had  lately  suffered  great 
persecution.    Its  members  were  exposed  to  peculiar  suf- 
ferings under  the  Conventicle  Act. 


t  John  Buxtorf,  R.     f  Moses  Amyraldus,  R. 


^^5  Charles  II.  King  of  Spain. 


#■  The  Plague  breaks  out  in  London. 


Consensus  Repetitus  Fidei  Vere  Lutheranae. 
*  Five  Mile  Act. 


Jansenist  Controversy.  —  The  pope  commands  all  the 
French  clergy  formally  to  abjure  "  the  heresy  of  Jansenius," 
and  to  subscribe  to  the  assertion,  that  the  five  propositions 
are  contained  in  the  works  of  Jansenius  in  the  heretical 
sense.  Many  of  the  clergy  protest  against  recognising 
the  pope's  infallibility  as  to  matters  of  fact,  while  they  de- 
clare themselves  ready  to  yield  to  it  in  matters  of  faith. 
Vehement  disputes  ensue.  Attempt  to  obtain  the  signa- 
tures of  the  Nuns  of  Port  Royal  by  compulsion. 


Violent  persecution  of  the  Waldenses. 


University  of  Kiel  founded. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  411 

1666  #  The  Fire  of  London. 


P.  J.  Spener,  Senior  of  the  Ministry  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Maine.  He  makes  efforts  to  restore  the  study  and 
practice  of  scriptural  theology  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 


*  William  Penn  joins  the  Society  of  Friends. 
A  large  sect  separates  from  the  Russian  (Greek)  Church, 
chiefly  on  liturgical  grounds  ;  which  afterwards  subdivides 
itself  into  a  number  of  smaller  sects  (Raskolnites,  — 
Separatists).  They  are  at  first  exposed  to  violent  perse- 
cution. 


1667  The  pope  sends  vicars  into  the  territories  of  John  Fre- 
derick, Duke  of  Brunswick,  who  had  conformed  to  the 
Romish  Church. 


Controversy  between  Claude  and  Nicole  respecting  the 
doctrine  of  the  Eucharist. 


A  French  translation  of  the  Scriptures  by  the  scholars 
of  Port  Royal  (Translation  of  Mons)  published  at  Amster- 
dam.    Condemned  by  the  pope. 

I  Samuel  Bochart,  R.     "f  J.  H.  Hottinger,  R. 


1 668       Triple  alliance  between  England,  Holland,  and  Sweden, 


against  Louis  XIV.  of  France. 


Jansenist  Controversy.  —  The  new  pope  (Clement  IX.), 
by  allowing  an  ambiguity  of  expression,  persuades  the 
greater  part  of  the  Jansenists  to  subscribe  the  abjuration. 


#  William  Penn,  a  prisoner  in   the  Tower,  writes  his 
"No  Cross,  No  Crown." 


University  of  Lund  founded. 
i  J.  Hoornbeck,  R. 


\S 


412  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1669  In  France,  Louis  XIV.  begins  to  use  efforts  for  in- 
ducing the  Protestants  in  that  country  to  conform  to  the 
Romish  Church.  Marshal  Turenne  unexpectedly  con- 
forms. 

*  About  this  time  various  proposals  were  made  for  the 
toleration  and  comprehension  of  English  Nonconformists ; 
but  without  effect. 


Labadists  at  Amsterdam. 


t  J.  Cocceius,  R.     t  H.  Busenbaum,  a  Jesuit,    j  Leo 
Allatius,  a  Latinising  writer  of  the  Greek  Church. 


I67O        Treaty  between  the  emperor,  Spain,  and  Holland. 


The  pope  reconciled  to   Portugal.     The  king's  nomi- 
nation to  bishoprics  confirmed. 


#  Second  Conventicle  Act. 


t  J.  Daille,  R. 


Quesnel's  Annotations  on  the  Gospels  published.  Also, 
Bossuet's  Exposition  de  la  Doctrine  de  l'Eglise  Catho- 
lique  sur  les  Matieres  de  Con tro verse. 


University  of  Urbino  founded. 


1672  The  emperor,   Spain,  Holland,  and  Brandenburg,  de- 
clare war  against  France. 

Louis  XIV.    conquers    the  greater    part  of  Holland. 
William,  Stadtholder. 

#  Corporation  Act.       (Ineffectual  declaration  of  Tole- 
ration by  Charles.) 

1673  *  The  Test  Act. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  418 

1673  University  of  Inspruck  founded. 


1674  Louis  conquers  Franche  Comte.  Victories  of  the 
Prince  of  Conde  and  Marshal  Turenne  in  Germany  and 
Flanders. 


t  Cardinal  Bona, 
t  J.  Labadie. 

Cocceian  Controversy  in  the  Reformed  Church,  concerning 
the  principles  of  scriptural  interpretation,  and  the  doc- 
trine of  the  covenants.  Typical  and  federal  theology. 
This  controversy  continued  to  divide  the  Reformed  Church 
during  the  remainder  of  this  century.  Subdivided  into 
two  sections,  the  strict  (of  Utrecht)  and  the  moderate  (of 
Leyden),  the  Anticocceians  also  (Voetians)  were  distin- 
guished into  the  old  and  modern. 
1675  Spener's  "  Pia  Desideria." 


Attempts  at  effecting  an  union  between  German  Pro 
testants  and  the  Church  of  Rome,  promoted  by  Spinola. 
Formula  Consensus  Helvetici. 


*  Meeting  for  Sufferings,  appointed  by  the  Society  of 
Friends. 


Michael  Molinos  publishes  his  "  Spiritual  Guide.' 
t  *   John  Lightfoot,     f  Samuel  Desmarets,  R. 


I676  The  new  pope  (Innocent  XI.)  soon  became  distinguished 
by  his  honest  and  zealous  efforts  for  promoting  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Church  (on  papal  principles),  and  for  giving  a 
wholesome  correction  to  the  teaching  and  morals  of  the 
clergy.  At  the  same  time,  he  strenuously  maintained  the 
supposed  rights  and  honour  of  the  Church  against  the 
claims  of  temporal  potentates. 


414  FROM    THE    REFORMATION  (Seventh 

I676        #  Continued  persecution  of  the  Quakers  in  England. 
Division  in  the  society.     Barclay  writes  his  Apology. 


I677  Spener  publishes  his  "  Spiritual  Priesthood.'' 


Quakers  endeavour  to  establish  themselves  in  Holland 
and  Germany. 

|  Gilbert  Voetius,  R. 


(|  Benedict  Spinosa,  a  pantheist.) 


The  Syncretistic  Controversy  gradually  degenerates  into 
a  personal  quarrel  between  the  leaders  of  the  opposite 
parties,  and  declines  in  general  interest. 

In  Switzerland,  the  strict  Calvinistic  doctrines  respect- 
ing Predestination,  &c.  continue  to  maintain  their  ground, 
although  not  without  opposition. 


Peace  of  Nimuegen,  between  France  and  Holland. 


Dispute  of  the  pope  with   France  respecting  the  ap- 
propriation of  vacant  bishoprics  to  the  king  (regale). 

*  Plots  for  the  re-establishment  of  Popery  in  England 
(Titus  Oates). 

#  Act  against  Roman  Catholics,  excluding  them  from 
both  Houses  of  Parliament. 


t  John  Launoi,  R.  C. 


f  Wissowatius,  Socinian. 


1679  TJie  Jansenist  Controversy. — The  pope  (Innocent  XI.) 
takes  part  in  the  argument  of  the  Jansenists  against  the 
Jesuits.  He  published  a  bull  this  year  condemning  the 
Propositiones  laxorum  moralistarum,  — for  the  most  part, 
positions  maintained  by  Jesuits). 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  415 

1679       t  *  Henry  Moore,     f  Francis  Burmann,  R.    1  James 
Alting,  R. 

t  #  Thomas  Hobbes,  a  deistical  writer. 


t  Antoinette  Bourignon,  pretender  to  inspiration,  and 
celebrated  propagator  of  mystico-theosophic  doctrines  in 
the  Low  Countries. 


1681  Persecution  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  France. 


f  J.  Musaeus,  L. 


|  Christopher  Sand,  Antitrinitarian. 


1682  A  National  Council  of  France^ 

convened  by  the  king,  at  Paris,  embodies  certain  proposi- 
tions restrictive  of  the  papal  authority  in  that  country, 
which,  in  effect,  had  been  held  by  a  large  portion  of  the 
Gallican  clergy  ever  since  the  Council  of  Constance. 
Quatuor  Propositiones  Cleri  Gallicani. 
These  are,  1.  That  the  power  of  the  pope  extends 
only  to  spiritual  matters;  and  especially  that  the  king 
cannot  be  deposed  by  the  pope.  2.  That  the  spiritual 
authority  of  the  pope  is    subject  to   that  of  a  general 


v/ 


1680  The  pope  is  still  engaged  in  a  contest  with  the  king  of 
France,  respecting  the  right  of  nomination  to  benefices 
during  the  vacancy  of  a  bishopric. 

Bossuet,  as  a  controversialist,  endeavours  to  induce  a  re- 
union of  Protestants  with  the  Romish  Church. 

J  Duraeus  (John  Dury) ;  who  spent  his  life  in  endea- 
vouring to  promote  an  union  of  the  Protestant  churches,       \ 
on  the  ground  of  their  agreement  in  the  essential  truths 
of  Christianity. 

f  *  Earl  of  Rochester,     f  Martin  Geier,  L. 


416  from  the   reformation  {Seventh 

168S  council,  according  to  the  principles  promulgated  at  Con- 
stance. 3.  That  the  exercise  of  the  papal  power  in 
judicial  matters  must  be  regulated  by  the  ancient  eccle- 
siastical laws.  4.  That  the  pope  possesses  the  power  of 
deciding  in  matters  of  faith,  but  that  his  decisions  are  to 
be  regarded  as  infallible  only  when  confirmed  by  the 
voice  of  the  whole  church. — Bossuet  writes  in  defence  of 
these  propositions.  The  pope  declares  the  acts  of  this 
council  null  and  void   (see  1693). 


1683 


1684 


1685 


*  Penn  and  his  colony  of  Quakers  found  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Bossuet's  Defensio  Declarationis  Celeberrimae  quam  de 
Potestate  Ecclesiastica  sanxit  Clerus  Gallicanus. 
Calov's  Historia  Syncretistica. 


John  Sobiesky,  King  of  Poland,  defeats  the  Turks  at 
Vienna. 

#  English  high  churchmen  proclaim  the  doctrine  of 
passive  obedience  and  non-resistance.  The  Oxford  De- 
cree  (July  21.) 

j*  J.  A.  Schertzer,  L. 
Last  Edition  of  the  Racovian  Catechism. 


#  In  England,  during  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  many 
thousand  Protestant  dissenters  were  thrown  into  prison, 
and  subjected  to  other  severe  sufferings. 

The  Church  of  Rome  obtains  ascendancy  in  the  Pala- 


tinate. 


*  James  II.  King  of  England. 


Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 
The  Reformed  Church  in  France  suffers  increased  per- 


Period,)  to  the  present  time.  417 

secution.  Many  members  seek  refuge  in  flight ;  many 
others  murdered ;  churches  destroyed. 

#■  In  England,  James  endeavours  to  establish  arbitrary 
power,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  He  publishes 
a  letter  prohibiting  the  clergy  from  preaching  on  contro- 
versial subjects. 

*  Several  heads  of  colleges  in  Oxford  declare  them- 
selves Roman  Catholics. 


In  France,  Fenelon  labours  zealously  for  the  reduction  of 
the  Protestants  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 

#  James  establishes  a  court  of  ecclesiastical  commission. 
Compton  suspended. 

Massey,  a  Roman  Catholic,  appointed  Dean  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford. 


Great  influence  of  Spener  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  in 
favour  of  Biblical  Theology  and  Practical  Religion,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  cold,  scholastic,  polemico- orthodox  divinity  which 
had  become  prevalent. 


Hostile  operations  against  the  Waldenses,  carrying  to 
its  height  a  cruel  persecution.  Extermination  of  the 
greater  number  (eleven  thousand)  ;  the  rest  (three  thou- 
sand) banished. 

Du  Pin's  Library  of  Ecclesiastical  Writers. 
f  Abraham  Calov,  L.     f  Louis  Maimbourg,  R.  C. 


#■  James  II.  of  England  treacherously  supports  the 
cause  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  English  Protestants 
dread  the  return  of  papal  usurpation. 

Fresh  quarrel  between  the  Pope  and  Louis  XIV. 
(Right  of  sanctuary  in  ambassador's  house  at  Rome.) 


*  James  issues  a  Declaration  of  Liberty  of  Conscience, 
and  endeavours  to  procure  the  repeal  of  penal  laws 
against  Nonconformists,  with  a  view  to  facilitate  the  re-* 
establishment  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion. 

e  e 


418 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 


{Seventh 


1687 


1688 


./■ 


He  issues  a  mandatory  letter  to  the  Fellows  of  Mag- 
dalen College  in  Oxford,  enjoining  them  to  elect  a 
Roman  Catholic  as  president.  The  Fellows  resisted, 
and  were  afterwards  ejected,  together  with  Hough, 
whom  they  had  appointed  president.  Cambridge  also 
resisted  an  illegal  act  of  royal  interference  concerning 
the  conferring  of  a  degree  on  a  Roman  Catholic,  without 
taking  the  oaths.  Governors  of  the  Charter  House  refused 
to  admit  Andrew  Popham  on  the  same  terms. 

The  pope's  nuncio  publicly  received  at  Windsor. 


The  pope  condemns,  as  heretical  and  blasphemous, 
sixty-eight  propositions  selected  by  the  Inquisition  from 
the  writings  of  Molinos.     The  writer  imprisoned  for  life. 

The  party  attached  to  the  principles  and  writings  of 
Molinos  begin  to  be  designated  by  the  title  of  Quietists, 
as  a  term  of  reproach. 


*  James  II.  compelled  to  resign  the  English  crown,  on 
account  of  his  perfidy  towards  the  national  church.  He 
had  republished  his  iniquitous  Declaration,  with  orders 
that  it  should  be  read  in  every  parish  church.  Seven 
bishops,  having  petitioned  against  it,  were  committed  to 
the  Tower,  on  charge  of  a  misdemeanour.  They  were 
tried  and  acquitted.  James  endeavoured  to  retrace  his 
steps  when  it  was  too  late. 

*  THE  GLORIOUS  REVOLUTION 

places   William   and   Mary   upon   the   throne. 
Peter  the  Great,  Emperor  of  Russia. 


#  Eight  bishops  and  four  hundred  other  clergy,  refus- 
ing to  take  the  new  oaths  of  supremacy  and  allegiance 
(Nonjurors)  are  ejected. 

*  The  liberties  of  the  British  Church  are  now,  for  a 
time  at  least,  secured. 

The  praise  belongs  to  God, 
May  he  evermore  defend  us  from  false  doctrine,  super- 
stition, and  ecclesiastical  tyranny  ! 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  419 


1688 


1689 


William  du  Serre,  a  native  of  Dauphine,  pretends  to 
the  possession  of  miraculous  gifts.     Rise  of  the  Camisards. 


Bossuefs  Histoire  des  Variations  des  Eglises  Protestantes. 


f  #  John  Pearson,  Bishop  of  Chester,   f  *  Ralph  Cud- 
worth,     "f  J.  A.  Quenstedt,  L. 


*  Act  of  Toleration.  Proposals  for  an  alteration  of 
the  Liturgy,  Canons,  &c  under  royal  commission,  by 
Convocation ;  defeated  by  the  Lower  House. 

*  Episcopacy  abolished  in  Scotland.  The  Presby- 
terian Church  established  by  law. 

*  Confession  of  Faith  agreed  upon  by  a  general  Assembly 
of  the  Calvinistic  Baptists  in  London, 


Casimir  Leszinski,  burnt  at  Warsaw,  as  an  atheist. 

Religious  liberty  in  China.  Permission  to  embrace 
Christianity. 

*•  The  Quakers  now  enjoy  toleration  in  England  and 
America. 

The  banished  Waldenses  recover  their  native  province. 


The  Syncretistic  Controversy  terminates  shortly  after  the 
death  of  Calov  (1686)  and  Strauch  (1690). 

Collegia  Philobiblica,  at  Leipsic. 

(Aug.  Herm.  Franke.) 

Rise  of  the  Pietistic  Controversy. 


*  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  —  An  attempt  was 
made,  with  the  sanction  of  many  bishops  and  eminent 
divines,  to  effect  some  useful  alterations  in  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  by  an  act  of  Convocation,  under  royal 
commission.  But  the  attempt  was  overruled  by  the  Lower 
House,  assenting  to  the  views  of  Dr.  James,  author  of  the 
e  e  2 


420  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

Oxford  Decree  (1683)  — - "  Nolumus  leges  Anglige  mu- 
tari ! " 


1690  *  Battle  of  the  Boyne, 


Disputes  between  the  pope  and    the   king  of  France 
continue. 


t  *  John  Elliot,  Apostle  of  the  North  American   In- 
dians. 


j*  #   Robert  Barclay,  a  Quaker  (Apology), 


#•  Antinomian  Controversy  in  England  revived. 


1691         *  Renewed  persecution  of  Protestants  in  Ireland. 


#■  Division  of  English  Baptists,  into  Particular  Baptists 
(Calvinistic),  and  General  Baptists  (Arminian).  A  third 
class,  Sabbatarians,  or  Seventh-day  Baptists,  was  also 
formed;  —  always  small,  —  and  now  almost  merged  into 
the  Particular  Baptists. 

■*•  Proposed  union  of  the  English  Presbyterian  and  Con- 
gregational Churches.  —  Heads  of  agreement  assented  to 
by  the  united  ministers  in  and  about  London,  formerly 
called  Presbyterian  and  Congregational. 


*  At  this  time,  the  doctrinal  views  of  the  great  body  of 
Dissenters  in  England  were  in  conformity  with  those  of  the 
Established  Church. 

Spener  at  Berlin  ;  obnoxious  to  the  "  orthodox  "  Lu- 
theran divines  on  account  of  his  Scriptural  doctrines  and 
practical  Christianity. 

Zeal  for  the  recovery  of  his  Church  from  a  barren  and 
lifeless  orthodoxy  led  him  to  undervalue  the  Lutheran 
confessions  and  symbolic  books,  or  at  least  to  speak  lightly 
of  their  use  and  importance.  It  is  probable  that  the  im- 
pression which  he  effected  in  this  way  was  greater  than  he 


Period,)  to  the  present  time.  421 


1691 


1692 


1693 


intended ;  and  that  it  was  afterwards  employed  as  an  in- 
strument against  the  cause  of  scriptural  truth  itself. 


"f**  George  Fox,  a  Quaker. 


At  this  period  there  were  Societies  of  Friends  in  Hol- 
land, Germany,  and  Prussia,  but  these  were  few  and 
inconsiderable;  while  those  in  England  and  America 
were  severely  persecuted. 


t  *  Richard  Baxter,     f  Samuel  Basnage,  R. 


#■  The  Boyle  Lectures  begin. 


*  Arthur  Bury,  an  Arian. 


The  popes  having  resolutely  refused  to  fill  up  vacant 
bishoprics  in  France  during  the  late  disputes,  and  the 
French  Church  not  having  dared  to  supply  deficiencies 
without  his  concurrence,  the  king  was  at  length  obliged 
to  yield.  The  French  clergy  beg  pardon  of  the  pope 
for  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Paris  (1682).  But  the 
principles  declared  on  that  occasion  continued  to  influence 
a  large  portion  of  their  body. 


Baillet  writes  against  the  worship  of  the  Virgin. 
That  superstition  had  been  carried  to  a  great  height  in 
Spain  about  this  time. 

■*■  A  Statement  of  Christian  Doctrines  issued  on  behalf  of 
the  Society  of  Friends. 


Quesnel's  Practical  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament 
completed. 

T  Charles  Blount,  a  deistical  writer. 
e  e  3 


422  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1694  University  of  Halle  founded. 

This  new  university  soon  becomes  the  cradle  of  Scriptural 
Theology  in  Germany,  Spener,  Franke,  and  others,  labour 
with  great  success. 

The  Lutheran  Church  now  divides  itself  into  two  par- 
ties ;  the  one,  having  Halle  for  its  centre,  maintaining 
the  reformed  principles  of  Luther  in  spirit  and  practice, 
and  endeavouring  to  spread  a  living,  scriptural,  practical 
Christianity ;  the  other,  having  the  universities  of  the 
Electorate  of  Saxony  (especially  Wittemberg)  for  its 
strong  hold,  maintaining  controversially  "  a  stiff,  orthodox, 
scholastic  dogmatism." 

The  scriptural  doctrine  of  sanctification,  and  its  in- 
separable connection  with  justification,  had  been  generally 
neglected  by  the  Lutheran  divines  before  this  period. 
Spener  laboured  to  bring  it  into  due  prominence,  but 
without  falling  into  the  error  of  confounding  justification 
and  sanctification  with  each  other. 


t  #  John  Tillotson,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  J  Christ- 
ian Kortholt,  L.     "f  Antony  Arnauld,  R.  C. 


1695        *  George  Keith  expelled  from  the  Society  of  Friends. 


Madame  Guyon  and  her  confessor,  Francis  de  la 
Combe,  propagate  the  mystico-theosophic  principles  of 
Molinos  in  France  and  Switzerland.  Protected  by 
Fenelon,  who  became  Archbishop  of  Cambray  in  1695. 
After  the  submission  of  Fenelon  to  the  decision  of  Rome, 
the  views  which  he  had  advocated  find  little  support,  and 
gradually  decline. 


t  J.  W.  Baier,  L.     f  Spinola,  R.  C. 
1696  |  Benedict  Pictet,  R.  (System  of  Theology). 

t  Molinos,  R,  C. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  423 

1697  Charles  XII.  King  of  Sweden. 

Peace  of  Ryswick. 


t  Sebastian  Schmid,  L.     t  J-  H.  Heidegger,  R. 


Dutch  missionaries  begin  to  propagate  the  Gospel  in 
Ceylon  and  Java  with  great  success. 


*  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  founded. 
Orphan  House  at  Halle  founded. 


Fresh  persecution  of  French  Protestants. 


Controversy  between  Fenelon,  Archbishop  of  Cambray, 
and  Bossuet,  Bishop  of  Meaux,  concerning  love  to  God, 
and  various  points  involved  in  the  mystic  theology  of 
Molinos  and  Guyon. 


t  A.  Pfeiffer,  L. 


Frederick  IV.  King  of  Denmark  (to  1730). 


The  pope  condemns,  as  dangerous  and  erroneous, 
twenty-eight  propositions  selected  from  Fenelon's  Ex- 
plication des  Maximes  des  Saintes  sur  la  Vie  Interieure. 
Fenelon  submits. 


t  J.  B.  Carpzov,  L. 

During  this  century,  the  Church  of  Rome  maintained 
missions  in  various  parts  of  the  world;  especially  in 
the  East  Indies ;  Siam,  Tonquin,  and  Cochin  China ; 
Japan ;  China ;  Africa ;  Portuguese,  French,  and  Spanish 
America;  particularly  in  Paraguay. 

The  missionaries  were,  for  the  most  part,  members  of 
monastic  orders,  but  especially  Jesuits :  serious  misunder- 

e  e  4 


424 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 


{Seventh 


standings  and  violent  disputes  often  arose  between  the 
Jesuits  and  the  members  of  other  orders. 
1700        Missionary  zeal  now  receives  an  impulse  in  the  Evangelical 
(Lutheran)  Church  —  a  consequence  of  the  improved  tone  of 
religious  feeling  to  which,  through  divine  blessing,  the  labours 
of  Spener,  Franke,  and  their  friends,  gave  rise. 

Frederick  IV.  King  of  Denmark,  resolves  to  establish  a 
mission  on  the  coast  of  Tranquebar,  in  the  East  Indies. 

There  is,  at  this  time,  a  Christian  church  in  the  palace 
of  the  Emperor  of  China,  at  Pekin. 


Philip  V.  King  of  Spain. 
War  between  Russia,  Poland,  Denmark,  and  Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden. 


The  new  pope,  Clement  XI.  (1700-1721),  encour- 
aged by  the  recent  victory  over  the  king  and  clergy  of 
France,  endeavours  to  establish  the  papal  dominion  in 
its  former  extent.  Hence  the  period  of  his  government 
included  a  series  of  struggles,  especially  with  the  emperor 
of  Germany. 

Tlie  emperor  of  Russia  becomes  head  of  the  (National) 
Greek  Church  in  his  dominions.  Tlie  office  of  patriarch 
abolished. 

#  The  Baptists'  Catechism. 


Academy  at  Berlin. 

The  Camisards  numerous  in  the  Cevennes  and  Lower 
Languedoc.  Pretensions  to  inspiration,  the  power  of 
working  miracles,  prophesying,  &c. 


1701         The  emperor,  England,  Holland,  Savoy,  and  Portugal, 
declare  war  against  France  and  Spain. 

Frederick  I.  King  of  Prussia. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  425 

1701        *  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign 
Parts  founded. 

#  Toland  writes  against  Christianity. 


Two  Lutheran  (titular)  bishops  appointed  on  occasion 
of  the  coronation  of  the  king  of  Prussia. 


t  *  Richard  Kidder,  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,    f  F.  U. 
Calixtus,  L.      f  F.  Spanheim,  R. 


Terministic  Controversy  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 


1702  *  Anne,  Queen  of  Great  Britain. 


University  of  Breslau  founded. 
1703  |  F.  Bechman,  L. 


The  Prussian  government  begins  to  use  efforts  for  ef- 
fecting an  union  between  the  Reformed  and  Evangelical 
Churches. 

Conference  at  Berlin  ;  fruitless. 


1704 


Battle  of  Blenheim. 
Stanislaus  Lecksinsky,  King  of  Poland. 


Disputes  between  the  Jesuits  and  Dominicans  in  China 
now  run  very  high. 


t  J.  Gousset,  R.     t  H.  Noris,  R.  C.      f  J.  B.  Bossuet, 
R.  C.     f  Louis  Bourdaloue.     ("f  *  John  Locke.) 


Hie  School  of  Spener  begins  to  degenerate ;  pretension 
substituted  for  piety,  affectation  for  humility,  irregularity 
for  zeal;  pietism  gradually  identified  with  ignorance. — 
Enthusiastic,  or  otherwise  erroneous,  interpretation  and 
adoption  of  Spener's  positions. 


426  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1704        Petersen,  Dippel,  and  other  fanatical  teachers,  make  the 
writings  of  Pietists  their  starting-point. 

But  some  of  the  more  genuine  disciples  of  this  school 
continue  to  propagate  pure  Christian  doctrine  and  spiritual 
religion,  with  humility,  faith,  and  zeal. 


Joseph  I.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

ZlEGENBALG  AND  PlUTSCHAU, 

Danish  missionaries  to  the  coast  of  Tranquebar;  recom- 
mended to  Frederick  IV.  by  Franke  of  Halle. 


1705  Jansenist  Controversy.  —  Clement  XI.  a  zealous  friend 
of  the  Jesuits,  published  a  bull  this  year,  declaring  it 
not  sufficient  to  observe  an  obedient  silence  upon  the 
question,  whether  the  five  propositions  were  really  con- 
tained in  the  works  of  Jansenius, —  requiring  the  belief 
that  he  taught  them  in  the  heretical  sense,  —  and  demand- 
ing subscription  with  this  understanding.  Many  of  the 
Jansenists  had  already  retired  from  the  contest,  and  the 
bull  created  little  excitement.  Port  Royal,  however,  still 
adheres  to  the  Jansenist  cause. 


f  P.  J.  Spener,  L. 


1*706  Peace  between  Sweden  and  Saxony. 

Battle  of  Ramillies. 


The  Camisards  destroyed,  or  expelled  from  their  native 
country.  Some  of  the  surviving  "  prophets "  come  to 
England,  where  they  obtain  a  few  followers.  Pretensions 
to  inspiration  or  revelations,  power  of  healing  and  working 
other  miracles.     The  delusion  soon  passed  away. 


f  P.  Mastricht,  R. 
T  *  Peter  Bayle,  a  sceptical  writer. 


Period,)  to  the  present  time.  427 

1707  *  Union  of  England  and  Scotland. 


J.  A.  Turretin,  a  reformed  divine,  maintains  that  the 
points  of  difference  between  the  Evangelical  and  Reformed 
are  not  such  as  necessarily  prevent  an  union  of  the  two 
churches. 

t  *    Simon  Patrick,     t  J.  Mabillon,  R.  C. 


Violent  dispute  between  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor 
Joseph,  respecting  the  right  to  the  Duchy  of  Parma.  The 
pope  and  emperor  are  at  variance  also  respecting  the 
right  claimed  by  the  emperor  of  presenting  once,  during 
his  reign,  to  a  vacant  place  in  each  of  the  German  eccle- 
siastical foundations;   (Jus  primarum  precum). 


t  Herman  Witsius,  R. 


About  this  time   the   Franciscans  occupy  more  than 
7000  monasteries. 


Jansenist  Controversy.  —  The  pope  (Clement  XI.)  pro- 
hibits the  reading  of  Quesnel's  Commentary  on  the  New 
Testament,  on  account  of  its  alleged  errors,  and  its  agree- 
ment with  the  Translation  of  Mons.  Noailles,  Archbishop 
of  Paris  and  Cardinal,  had  signified  his  approbation  of  the 
book,  after  it  had  been  submitted  to  the  inspection  of 
Bossuet,  and  received  his  favourable  testimonial.  The 
present  prohibition  was  procured  by  the  Jesuits,  the 
enemies  of  Noailles. 

(The  Convent  of  Port  Royal  des  Champs  destroyed 
by  Louis  XIV.  at  the  instigation  of  the  Jesuits,  in  1709 
and  1710.) 


Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  completely  defeated  by  Peter 
the  Great,  at  Pultowa. 


428  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1709!  The  pope  and  the  emperor  come  to  terms.  Emperor's 
right  to  the  Duchy  of  Parma  conceded,  The  jus  prima- 
rum  precum  virtually  established  by  the  grant  of  a  per- 
petual license  for  the  exercise  of  it  by  the  emperor. 


1710 


1711 


Protestants  on  the  Continent  now  make  various  struggles 
for  the  preservation  of  their  religious  liberty  from  Romish 
aggression. 

Violent  controversy  in  Germany  between  the  (so- 
called)  orthodox  Lutheran  divines  and  the  theologians  of 
Halle.  Extravagancies  of  some  fanatics  employed  as  an 
argument  against  the  pious  theologians  of  Halle.  Count 
Zinzendorf  at  Halle. 


f  H.  G.  Masius,  L. 


The  reigning  duke   of  Brunswick  Wolfenbuttel  con- 
forms to  the  Romish  Church. 


T  #  George  Bull,     f  Thomas  Ittig,  L.     f  J-  Braun,  R. 
t  E.  Flechier,  R.  C. 

J.  G.  Gichtel,  a  fanatic,  at  Amsterdam. 


#-  Leibnitz  endeavours  to  negotiate  an  union  of  the  German 
Protestants  with  the  Episcopal  Church  of  England. 


*  Act  concerning  Occasional  Conformity  repealed. 

*  Severe  laws  against  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Ireland 


were  enacted  during  the  reign  of  Anne. 


Jansenist  Controversy. — The  pope,  urged  by  Louis  XIV. 
at  the  instigation  of  his  confessor  Le  Tellier,  a  Jesuit, 
publishes  his  famous  constitution  or  bull  Unigenitus,  in 
which  he  strictly  forbids  the  use  of  the  Commentary  of 
Quesnel,  condemning  as  heretical  101  propositions  se- 
lected from  it,  many  of  which  contained  the  doctrines  of 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  429 

Scripture  or  Augustin,  and  thus,  in  fact,  establishing 
Semipelagianism  as  the  doctrine  of  the  Romish  Church. 
Cardinal  Noailles  refuses  to  accept  the  bull.  Hence 
arise  violent  contentions  in  the  French  Church,  which  last 
until  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1715. 


1712 


*  Whiston,  Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Cambridge, 
avowing  Arian  principles,  is  deprived  of  his  professorship, 
and  expelled  from  the  university. 

*  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke  advocates  some  Semiarian  doc- 
trines about  this  time.    He  is  opposed  by  Dr.  Waterland. 


*  Gale  writes  against  Wall  on  Infant  Baptism. 
t  *  J.  E.  Grabe.      *  Henry  Dodwell.    f  N.  Gurtler,  R. 


Congress  of  Utrecht.     Peace  between  England   and 
France. 


The  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer  adopted  by  the 
Scottish  Episcopalians,  with  the  exception  of  the  commu- 
nion office,  which  corresponds  to  that  in  the  first  liturgy 
of  Edward  VI. 


f  J.  F.  Mayer,  L.    |  Philip  Limborch,  R.    f  R.  Simon, 
R.C. 


1713  Frederick  William  I.  King  of  Prussia. 

Peace  of  Utrecht. 


Charles  Alexander,   Prince  of  Wurtemburg,  conforms 
to  the  Romish  Church. 


|  *  William  Cave,     t  P.  Jurieu,  R.    |  S.  Till,  R. 


|  *  A.  Ashley  Cooper,  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  a  deistical 
writer. 


430  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1714  *  George  I.  King  of  Great  Britain. 

*  Many  high  churchmen  in  England  refuse  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  reigning  House  of  Hanover  (Nonjurors). 


t  G.  Arnold,  L. 


1715        *  Rebellion  in  favour  of  the  English  Pretender  ;  sup- 
pressed. 


1716 


1717 


Louis  XV.  King  of  France. 


Dispute  between  the  pope  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  re- 
specting the  "  Sicilian  Monarchy,"  or  the  rights  of  the 
duke  touching  ecclesiastical  matters  in  Sicily.  The  pope 
obliged  to  yield. 

A  bull  against  the  Jesuits,  sanctioning  the  performance 
of  certain  superstitious  ceremonies  by  the  Chinese  Christ- 
ians. 


Persecution  of  Protestants  in  France, 
f  #  Gilbert  Burnet,  Bishop  of  Salisbury.    |  *  T.  Ten- 
nison,  Archbishop    of  Canterbury,      t  G.  Olearius,    L. 
*f  Francois  de  Salignac  de  la  Motte  Fenelon,  R.  C. 
(J  Malebranche. ) 


Many  (Jansenist)  divines  of  the  Church  of  France  evince 
a  desire  to  effect  an  union  with  the  Church  of  England. 

#  Number  of  Dissenting  Congregations  (i.  e.  Presby- 
terian, Independent,  and  Baptist)  in  England  and  Wales, 
1398. 

f  J.  Fecht,  L.     |  Massuet,  R.  C. 
(f  Leibnitz.) 


Correspondence  between  Louis  Ellies  Du  Pin,  Doctor  of 
the  Sorbonne,  and  Wake,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Frederick  Augustus  II.,  Elector  of  Saxony,  conforms  to 
the  Romish  Church. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  431 

Oppression  of  the  Dissidents  in  Poland. 


1717  Jansenist  Controversy. — Noailles,  with  many  of  the  French 
bishops  and  clergy,  appeal  from  the  pope  and  the  bull 
Unigenitus  to  a  general  council.  Thus  the  whole  French 
(R.  C.)  Church  was  divided  into  two  parties  upon  this 
question,  namely,  the  Constitutionists  or  Acceptants,  and 
the  Appellants.  In  1718  Clement  pronounced  sentence 
of  excommunication  against  the  latter  ;  for  some  time 
without  any  effect. 

*  The  Bangorian  Controversy  begins.     Hoadley  denies 
the  divine  institution  of  Episcopacy. 


University  of  Cervera  founded. 

|  *  Peter  Allix. 

j*  Madame  Guyon. 


171 8        Quadruple  alliance  between  England,  France,  Austria, 
and  Holland. 


Controversy  between  Ceillier  and  Barbeyrac  respecting 
the  morality  of  the  Fathers. 


Beausobre  and  Lenfant's  Translation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

T  J.  La  Placette,  R.     |  H.  A.  Roell,  R. 
|  #  William  Penn. 


I7I9  I  Bartholomew  Ziegenbalg. 


Consultation  at  Ratisbon  concerning  an  union  of  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches. 


t  J.  H.  Mai,  L.     t  L.  E.  Du  Pin,  R.  C.     t  Paschasius 
Quesnel,  R.  C. 

Toland  advocates  the  system  of  Spinoza. 


432  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1720  C.  M.  Pfaff,  a  Lutheran  divine,  and  J.  A.  Turretin, 
Reformed,  strongly  recommended  the  union  of  their  two 
churches. 


Jansenist  Controversy.  —  Noailles  consents  to  accept  the 
Constitution  conditionally. 


J.  H.  Michaelis  (critical  edition  of  the  New  Testament). 
t  J.  W.  Jager,  L.    f  E.  Renaudot,  R.  C. 


17^1        John  Egede  goes  to  Greenland,  where  he  labours  for 
the  conversion  of  the  natives. 


Holy  Legislative  Synod  at   St.  Petersburg ;    a   council 
appointed  for  governing  the  Russian  Church. 


#  Penal  laws  against  Antitrinitarians  in  England. 


|  A.  Rechenberg,  L.  j*  M.  Leydekker,  R.  |  P-  D.  Huet, 
R.  C.     J  F.  Pagi,  R.  C. 


1722        The  progress  of  Christianity  in  China  receives  a  check 
by  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Kang  He. 


Some  Moravian  Brethren  taken  under  the  protection 
of  Count  Zinzendorf. 


f  Gr.  W.  Molanus,  L.     f  Campegius  Vitringa,  R. 


f  *  J.  Toland,  a  deistical  writer. 


1723        Frederick  I.    King  of  Sweden,  sanctions   compulsory 
measures  for  the  propagation  of  Christianity  in  Lapland. 


Peter  Francis  Le  Courayer,  a  Roman  Catholic  divine 
of  Paris,   publishes  a  dissertation  in  which  he  declares 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  433 

ordination  of  English  bishops  valid,  and  maintains  the 
continuance  of  the  genuine  apostolical  succession  of 
bishops  in  the  Church  of  England  (see  1728). 


Jansenist  Controversy.  —  Louis  XV.  having  attained  his 
majority,  the  French  government,  influenced  by  Cardinal 
Fleury,  begins  to  side  with  the  pope  in  this  controversy. 
The  Appellants  are  henceforth  oppressed  and  persecuted. 


T  J.  Basnage,  R.     f  Claude  Fleury,  R,  C. 


Catharine,  Empress  of  Russia. 


Persecution  of  Protestants  in  France. 
Attempt  to  unite  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches; 
without  effect. 


Order  of  the  Brethren  of  Christian  Schools,  in  France, 
confirmed  by  the  pope. 


Dunkers  (Dippers),  or  Tumblers,  a  small  society  of 
German  Baptists,  founded  by  Conrad  Peysel,  near  Phila- 
delphia. 

f*  Humphrey  Prideaux,  Dean  of  Norwich.  "["Benedict 
Pictet,  R.     "J"  Natalis  Alexander,  R.  C. 


Dispute  of  the  Pope  with  John  V.  King  of  Portugal, 
respecting  the  papal  nuncio  (Vincenzio  Bicchi). 


Benedict  holds  a  Lateran  Council  "for  the  Reformation 
of  the  Church."     The  bull  Unigenitus  confirmed. 

Catharine,  Empress  of  Russia,  appropriates  the  fixed 
property  of  the  Church  to  the  use  of  the  crown,  and 
appoints  stipends  in  exchange. 


Jubilee  at  Rome. 

F  F 


434  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

17%5\       Remains  of  Augustin  said  to  be  discovered  at  Pavia. 


1726 


1727 


1728 


T  Gamier,  R.  C. 


The  king  of  Prussia  appoints  a  "  Vicarius  Generalis 
in  Spiritualibus,"  for  his  Roman  Catholic  subjects. 


T  *  Daniel  Whitby. 

*  George  II.  King  of  Great  Britain. 
Peter  II.  Emperor  of  Russia. 


Church  of  the  United  Brethren  at  Bertholdsdorf  (Herrn- 
hut),  established  under  the  auspices  of  Zinzendorf.  (Union 
of  the  Lutheran,  Reformed,  and  Moravian  constitution 
and  discipline.) 

*■  Irish  Roman  Catholics  deprived  of  the  right  of  voting 
at  elections. 

*  Hutchinsonians  in  England. 


J.  F.  Buddaeus ;  Isagoge  ad  Theologiam   Universam, 
J.  Hutchinson  ;  Moses's  Principia. 
J  *  James  Abbadie.     j*  A.  H.  Franke,  L. 


t  J.  W.  Petersen,  L.  (Millenium, — Apocatastasis). 


Callenberg,  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Halle,  founds  an 
institution  for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews  and  Moham- 
medans, which  continued  in  operation  until  1791. 


Le  Courayer  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  England  (Ox- 
ford). Here  he  maintains  his  former  principles,  and 
publishes  his  translation  of  Paul  Sarpi's  History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent. 


Jansenist  Controversy, — Noailles  accepts  the  Constitution 
unconditionally.     (N.  B.  After  his  death  in  the  following 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  435 

year,  a  paper  was  found,  in  which  he  attributed  his  recan- 
tations, &c.  to  the  weakness  of  old  age.) 


17^8 


t  J.  Lenfant,  R. 


Canonisation  of  Gregory  VII.  (who  had  already  been 
honoured  as  a  saint  by  some  monastic  orders),  attempted 
by  the  pope ;  but  opposed  by  several  of  the  courts  of 
Europe,  especially  by  France. 


#  The  Wesley s  at  Oxford. 


f  *  Samuel  Clarke.  |  J-  Fabricius,  L.  f  G.  Werns- 
dorf,  L.  f  J.  F.  Buddaeus,  L.  f  F.  A.  Lampe,  R.  f  J.  Har- 
duin,  R.  C.  

T  #■  Antony  Collins,  a  deistical  writer. 


1780  Christian  VI.  King  of  Denmark. 

Anne  Iwanowna,  Empress  of  Russia. 


Jansenist  Controversy. —  The  Constitution  Unigenitus  is 
registered  by  the  Parliament  of  France  as  a  national  law. 
The  party  of  the  Appellants  is  still  considerable  ;  they  are 
now  distinguished  by  peculiar  observances  of  an  ascetic 
and  otherwise  fanatical  character.  — Reported  miracles  at 
the  grave  of  Francis  of  Paris  (Abbe  Paris),  who  died 
in  1727  (Convulsionnaires). 

Infidelity  promoted  in  France  by  the  rising  fanaticism 
of  the  persecuted  Jansenists,  and,  in  general,  by  the  con- 
troversy in  which  they  took  part  and  suffered. 

#  Tindal  writes  against  the  Christian  Religion. 


*  Origin  of  the  Glassites,  or  Sandemanians. 


J.  Saurin,  R. 

ff2 


436 


1731 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 


(Seventh 


The  Emperor  Charles  VI.  enacts  that  all  Hungarian 
Protestants,  in  entering  upon  office,  shall  take  an  oath, 
"  by  the  Virgin  Mary  and  all  saints." 


*  By  a  concordat,  the  Scotch  episcopal  clergy  are  left 
at  liberty  to  use  either  the  old  communion  office,  or  that 
of  the  Anglican  Church. 


t  J.  Marc,  R. 


*  John  Wesley  and  George  Whitfield  preach  in  various 
parts  of  England. 

Polish  Dissidents  excluded  from  office. 
#•  Origin  of  the  Scottish  Secession  Church. 


1732 


Order  of  the  Liguorians,  or  Redemptorists,  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  and  the  instruction  of 
youth,  founded  at  Naples  by  Alfonso  Maria  de  Liguori. 


T  J.  J.  Breithaupt,  L. 


1733 


Voltaire  begins  to  scoff  at  Christianity. 

j"  Thomas  Woolston,  Matthew  Tindal,  Mandeville, 
deistical  writers. 

Three  missionaries  from  the  Church  of  the  United 
Brethren  land  in  Greenland. 


1734 


I  J.  C.  Dippel,  L.,  theosophist. 


Muratori  writes  against  superstition  in  the  worship  of 
saints. 


1735 


#  John  Wesley  in  America. 


University  of  Gottingen  founded. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  437 

t  *  William  Derham.  j"  J.  J.  Rambach,  L.  t  M.  Le 
Quien,  R.  C. 

Frederick  William  L,  King  of  Prussia,  makes  efforts  for 
effecting  an  union  between  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
Churches. 


Missions  of  the  United  Brethren  to  the  West  Indies, 
North  American  Indians,  Esquimaux,  Hottentots,  and 
Surinam. 


The  Danish  Mission  in  Greenland  flourishes, 
t  J.  A  Fabricms,  L.    t  J-  Clericus  (Le  Clerc)  R.    f  J. 
Fontanini,  R.  C. 

The  Church  of  the  United  Brethren  extends  itself  in 
Germany,  Holland,  England,  Ireland,  Denmark,  Norway, 
Russia,  North  America. 

The  constitution  and  discipline  of  this  Church  are  now 
settled.  Its  officers  are  bishops,  presbyters,  deacons,  dea- 
conesses, acolyths. 

Gradual  amalgamation  of  theological  parties  in  Ger- 
many,—  speculative,  orthodox,  and  practical.  Correspond- 
ing loss  of  energy  and  vigilance.  The  way  is  being  prepared 
for  the  introduction  of 

A     FALSE     PHILOSOPHY, 

opposed  to  all  former  systems  of  theological  doctrines. 


t  *  William  Wake,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,    j"  J.  A. 
Turretin,  R. 

Warburton's  Divine  Legation  of  Moses. 
t  G.  G.  Zeltner,  L.  |  J.  C.  Wolf,  L.  \\.  Beausobre,  R. 


Whitfield  in  America. 


John  Wesley  forms  a  society  in  London,  for   the   pro- 
motion of  practical  piety,  retaining  communion  with  the 
English  Episcopal  Church.     Whitfield  cooperates. 
First  Methodist  Society. 

f  f  3 


438 
1739 

1740 


1741 


from  the  reformation  {Seventh 

The  University  of  Paris  accepts  the  bull  Unigenitus. 


t  Edm.  Martene,  R.  C.    t  Rureus,  R.  C. 


Maria  Theresa,  Empress   of  Germanyf. 

Frederick  II.  the  Great,  King  of  Prussia. 

Ivan,  Emperor  of  Russia. 


Prosper  Lambertini,  Pope,  under  the  title  of  Bene- 
dict XIV.  (1740—1758).  A  lover  of  science,  and  pro- 
moter of  comparatively  moderate  and  liberal  measures. 
Zealous  in  his  efforts  for  the  good  education,  and  the 
general  efficiency,  of  the  clergy. 

He  maintained,  for  the  most  part,  a  good  understanding 
with  the  European  governments :  he  was  involved  in  dis- 
putes only  with  the  Republic  of  Venice. 


t  S.  Werenfels,  R. 

Wars  of  the  Austrian  Succession, 
Elizabeth,  Empress  of  Russia. 


#•  Wesley  and  Whitfield  at  the  head  of  separate 
societies  (Wesleyan  and  Whitfieldite  Methodists).  The 
doctrine  of  Absolute  Predestination  forms  the  ground 
of  separation. 


j*  Theophanes  Procopowitz,  Archbishop  of  Novogorod, 
a  reformer  of  the  Russian  Church. 


t  J.  G.  Reinbeck,  L.  |  D-  E.  Jablonski,  R.  f  B.  Mont- 
faucon,  R.  C. 

(|  J.  G.  Heineccius.) 


t  *  Thomas  Morgan,  a  deistical  writer. 


|  *  Thomas  Emlyn,  Unitarian. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  439 

1742  Charles  VIL  Emperor  of  Germany. 

France  declares  war  against   England,   Austria,   and 
Holland. 


The    pope    obliges    all  missionaries  in    China    and 

Malabar    to    bind    themselves  by  oath  to  abstain  from 

accommodating   the    Christian  religion  to   the  customs 
and  superstitions  of  the  natives. 


A  large  portion  of  Silesia  is  now  under  the  dominion 
of  Prussia.  The  Protestants  of  Prussian  Silesia  recover 
their  rights. 


SJ 


t  *  Daniel  Waterland.    f  Pet.  Sabatier,  R.  C.   f  J.  B. 
Massillon,  R.  C. 


The  French  government  begins  to   relax  its  severity 
against  Protestants  in  that  country. 
1743  *  Canons  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church. 


University  of  Erlangen  founded. 
|  E.  Benzel,  L.     f  Cardinal  Fleury. 


1744        Failure  of  an  attempt  to  unite  the  Greek  Christians  of 
Wallachia  with  the  Church  of  Rome. 

In  consequence  of  the  Prussian  conquests  in  Silesia, 
the  Protestant  churches  of  that  country  acquire  liberty, 
and  increase  in  number. 


1745        Francis  I.  (consort  of  Maria  Theresa)  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

#  Edward,   the    English    Pretender,    in  Scotland  and 


England. 


*  Associate  Synod  of  the  Scottish  Secession  Church. 


Benedict  XIV.  sanctions  the  celebration  of  a  new  fes- 
tival ; — The  Feast  of  the  Seven  Joys  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

F  F    4 


440 


1745 
1746 


S/ 


1747 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 


[Seventh 


But  this  pontiff  applied  himself  to  the  task  of  diminishing 
the  number  of  festivals  in  the  Church  of  Rome;  not 
without  opposition. 

t  J.  Lange,  L.     T  E.  S.  Cyprian,  L. 


Ferdinand  IV.  King   of  Spain.   Frederick  V.  King  of 
Denmark. 

*  Defeat  of  the  English  Pretender  at  Culloden, 


Opposition  to  Christianity  in  China. 
Diderot  propagates  atheistic  principles. 


#■  Powerful  Preaching  of  Wesley  and  Whitfield 
in  England.  The  number  of  itinerant  and  other 
preachers  in  connection  with  them  increases.  Fresh 
impulse  given  to  practical  religion  in  England. 

Frederick,  Count  Palatine,  conforms  to  the  Church  of 
Rome. 


|  B.  W.  Marpeger,  L. 


William  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange,  Stadtholder  of 
Holland. 


In  Hungary,  a  society  is  formed  for  the  extermination 
of  the  Protestant  religion.  The  government  forbids  Pro- 
testants to  study  in  foreign  parts,  or  to  restore  decayed 
churches,  without  special  permission. 

*  Division  in  the  Scottish  Secession  Church.  Burghers 
and  Antiburghers.     (Re-union  in  1820.) 


|  *  John  Potter,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,     j"  C.  E. 
Weisman,  L. 


f  Samuel  Crell,  a  Semisocinian. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  441 

I747  t  *  Thomas  Chubb,  a  deistical  writer. 


17^8  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 


*f  #  Isaac  Watts,     f  A.  Driessen,  R. 


1749        The  empress   of  Russia  supports  an  attempt  to  propa- 
gate Christianity  among  the  Siberians. 


#■   Hutchinsonian    Controversy    in  England   excites   at- 
tention. 


Order  of  the  Liguorians,  or  Redemptorists,  confirmed 
by  the  pope. 

f  V.  E.  Loscher,  L. 


17*50        Dispute  between  the  pope  and  the  Republic  of  Venice 
respecting  the  Patriarchate  of  Aquileia. 


At  this  time,  the  number  of  Protestants  in  France  is 
computed  at  two  millions,  notwithstanding  all  perse- 
cutions. 


The  Jesuits  had  now  become  objects  of  suspicion  to 
many  European  governments,  on  account  of  their  inter- 
ference in  state  matters.  By  their  ambition  and  avarice, 
their  false  principles  of  morals,  and  their  practice  of  craft 
and  fraudulent  artifice,  they  had  become  odious  to  the 
people  at  large.  Their  disputes  with  the  Jansenists  had 
also  contributed  to  their  unpopularity.  During  the  latter 
part  of  this  century  they  were  banished  from  various 
countries   (Portugal,  France,  Spain,  Naples,  Parma). 


Swedenborgians. 
(1749 — 1756.)    Swedenborg's   Arcana    Ccelestia  pub- 
lished. 


442  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1750        t  *  Edward  Chandler,  Bp.  of  Durham,  f  J-  Eisner,  R. 
t  A.  Schultens,  R.     |  L-  A.  Muratori,  R.  C. 


1751  Augustus  Frederick,  King  of  Sweden. 

William  V.  Stadtholder  of  Holland. 


Wetstein's  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  published, 
j"  #  Philip  Doddridge. 
(|  Christian  Schottgen.) 


f  #  Lord  H.  Bolinbroke,  a  deistical  writer. 


1752  The  Danish  Missions  in  the  East  Indies,  from  Halle, 
continue  to  be  made  eminently  useful.  Many  pious  mi- 
nisters, embued  with  the  same  spirit  which  had  animated 
Spener  and  Franke,  go  forth  to  this  field  of  labour. 
Among  them  is 

Christian  Frederic  Schwartz, 
whose  missionary  labours,  which  lasted   during  a  period 
of  forty-seven  years,  now  begin. 


*  Origin  of  the  Relief  Church,  or  Synod  of  Belief  in 
Scotland.  The  principle  of  this  church  is  to  admit  to 
communion  Christians  of  every  denomination,  who,  "  as 
far  as  they  can  judge,  have  a  competent  measure  of  know- 
ledge, are  soun  d  in  the  faith,  and  unblamable  in  their 
lives.', 


Jansenist  Controvej'sy.— Beaumont,  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
followed  herein  by  most  other  French  bishops,  ordained 
that  no  dying  person  should  receive  the  eucharist,  with- 
out producing  a  certificate  from  his  confessor  to  the  effect 
that  he  received  the  Constitution  (Unigenitus). 

The  Jansenist  Controversy  continued  to  divide  the 
French  Church  until  the  period  of  the  Revolution. 

Jansenist  Controversy  and  Schism  in  Holland.    Rise  of 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  443 

the  Roman  Catholic  Jansenist  churches  in  that  country, 
which  still  subsist. 


1752  t*  Thomas  Stackhouse.     t  J-  A.  Bengel,  L. 

I  *  William  Whiston. 


I753  Papal  Concordat  with  Spain. 


•j*  #  Joseph   Butler,    Bishop   of    Durham.      |  C.    F. 
Bbrner,  L. 

17^4  Inconsequence  of  violent  opposition  by  the  unconverted 
Chinese,  the  number  of  Christians  in  that  empire,  said  to 
have  amounted  at  one  time  to  800,000,  is  now  reduced 
to  100,000. 

f  J.  J.  Wetstein,  R. 
(t  Christian  Wolf.) 

1755  The  P°Pe  (Benedict  XIV.)  enters  into  the  plan  of  the 
king  of  Portugal  for  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits. 
Benedict  died  before  he  could  effect  his  purpose. 

Frederick,  hereditary  Prince  of  Hesse  Cassel,  conforms 
to  the  Church  of  Rome. 


t  #  Thomas  Wilson,  Bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man.    f  S. 
Deyling,  L.   |  J.  L.  Mosheim,  L.    j  A.  M.  Quirini,  R.  C. 
University  of  Moscow  founded. 


Confession  of  faith  of  the  original  or  strict  Mennonites. 


The  foundation  of  Pseudo- rationalism  begins  to  be  laid 
in  Germany  ; — prevalence  of  the  Leibnitzo-  Wolfian  Philo- 
sophy and  its  application  to  Theology  by  Baumgarten. 


The  French  philosophers  attack  Christianity. 


444  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

17*56        War  declared  between  England  and  France.     Begin- 
ning of  the  Seven  Years'  War. 


1757  t  s-  J-  Baumgarten,  L.    |  P-  E-  Jablonski,  R.     fA. 
Calmet,  R.  C. 

1758  The  new  pope  (Clement  XIII.)   comes  to  terms  with 
the  Republic  of  Venice. 


The  pope  a  friend  and  supporter  of  the  Jesuits.  A 
conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the  king  of  Portugal,  dis- 
covered this  year,  was  laid  to  the  charge  of  that  body. 
The  pope  refuses  to  accede  to  the  king's  request,  that 
Jesuits  should  be  put  upon  their  trial;  hereupon  the 
pope's  nuncio  was  sent  out  of  Portugal. 


Declaration  of  the  Company  of  Pastors  at  Geneva; 
containing  a  weak  and  insufficient  refutation  of  the  charge 
of  Socinianism,  which  has  now  made  great  and  desolating 
progress  in  the  Reformed  Church  at  Geneva. 


T  •&  Robert  Clayton,   Bishop  of  Clogher.     t  F.  W. 
Kraft,  L.    |  Prosper  Lambertini  (Pope  Benedict  XIV.). 


Swedenborg's  De  Ccelo  et  Inferno. 


I759  Charles  III.  King  of  Spain. 


Dictionnaire  de  l'Encyclopedie  published. 
Kiermander,  missionary  at  Calcutta. 
Dispute  between  the  pope  and  the  Republic  of  Genoa. 


t  J.  L.  Frey,  R. 


1760  *  George  III.  King  of  Great  Britain. 


("  Count  Zinzendorf. 


Period.)  to   the  present  time.  445 

1760  t  F.  Wagner,  L.     t  C.  M.  Pfaff,  L. 


The  pope  supports  the  order  of  Jesuits   against   the 
courts  of  Portugal  and  France. 


1761        J-  A.  Ernesti,  Institutio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti. 
T  #■  Benjamin  Hoadley,  Bp.  of  Winchester,  "j"  *  Thomas 
Sherlock,  Bp.  of  London.    *  "j*  John  Taylor,  of  Norwich. 
t  J.  P.  Fresenius,  L.     f  D.  Passionei,  R.  C.     f  J-  A.  Orsi, 
R.  C.    t  Le  Ceillier,  R.  C. 


1762        Peter  III.  Emperor  of  Russia;  afterwards  Catharine  II. 
Empress. 

The  separatists  from  the  Russian  (Greek)  Church  ob- 
tain toleration. 


t  D.  Gerdes,  R.     f  Prud-  Marunus,  R.  C. 


1763        Treaty  of  Hubertsburg ;  end  of  the  Seven  Years'  War. 


Provincial  Synod  of  Utrecht. 


Justinus  Febronius  (Hontheim),  De  Statu  Ecclesiae  et 
Legitima  Potestate  Romani  Pontificis; — combating  high 
notions  of  papal  power,  maintaining  the  supreme  author- 
ity of  general  councils,  and  the  independence  of  bishops, 
conceding  to  the  Romish  Church  only  an  unimportant 
primacy,  with  a  view  to  the  union  of  Roman  Catholic 
and  Protestant  Churches.  —  The  anti-papal  principles  of 
the  Council  of  Constance,  maintained  by  this  writer,  gain 
great  attention  and  acceptance  in  various  countries. 


1764  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  King  of  Poland. 


\S 


446  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1764  T  C.  A.  Henmann,  L.     f  E.  Pontoppidan,  L. 


1765  Joseph  II.  Emperor  of  Germany 

(with  Maria  Theresa). 


The  Portuguese  government  opposes  itself,  in  a  great 
measure,  to  the  papal  hierarchy. 


The  pope  isues  a  bull  in  commendation  and  support  of 
the  Jesuits.  Publication  of  the  bull  in  Portugal  forbid- 
den.    Jesuits  expelled  from  that  country. 


j"  #  George  Benson. 


1766  Christian  VII.  King  of  Denmark. 


*  Many  churches  of  the  Methodists  in  America. 


f  *  John  Leland.      t  *  Samuel  Chandler. 


I767        T  J.  C.  Edelmann,  the  first  antichristian  writer  in  Pro- 
testant Germany. 

-#■  Jesuits  arrested  in  Spain,  and  removed  to  Italy. 


I  J.  G.  Carpzov,  L. 


The  Dissidents  in  Poland  endure  continual  grievances. 
1768  #  First  Baptist  Church  in  Scotland. 

(The  number  of  Scotch  Baptist  churches  in  1836  was 

fi%-)  

Controversy  respecting  the  active  obedience  of  Christ. 


"f  *  Nathaniel  Lardner.  *  #  Thomas  Seeker,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  447 

1769  Church  of  Rome.  —  Cardinal  Ganganelli  chosen  pope 
(Clement  XIV.),  by  the  Antijesuit,  or  more  liberal, 
party.  He  pursues  the  same  line  of  policy  as  his  prede- 
cessor, Benedict  XIV. 


t  E.  A.  Bertling,  L. 

The  pope  becomes  involved  in  a   dispute  with  several 
of  the  courts  of  Europe,  in  consequence  of  his  edict  against 
the  duke  of  Parma,  who  had  taken  measures  for  restricting 
the  power  and  revenues  of  the  clergy. 
1770  A  pope's  nuncio  again  received  in  Portugal. 

Annual  publication  of  the  bull  In  Ccena  Domini  dis- 
continued. 


*  Shakers,  or  Shaking  Quakers,  a  fanatical  sect,  attract 
attention  in  Lancashire. 


t  *  George  Whitfield,    f  J.  Brucker,  L.    f  Urs.  Duran- 
dus,  R.  C. 

1771  Gustavus  III.  King  of  Sweden. 


Semler  gives  rise  to  a  controversy  respecting  the  Canon  of 
Scripture. 

Swedenborg  publishes  an  exposition  of  his  system,  en- 
titled "  True  Christian  Religion." 


t  Helvetius  —  Marquis  d'Argens  —  literary  opponents 
of  Christianity. 

1772        Partition  of  Poland  by  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia. 


*  A  body  of  English  clergy  and  laity  petition  Parlia- 
ment to  abolish  the  practice  of  subscription  to  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles.     The  measure  not  carried. 


t  J.  C.  Kocher,  L. 


448  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1772  t  Emanuel  Swedenborg. 


1773  The  pope,  by  concessions,  conciliates  the  duke  of  Parma, 
and,  soon  after,  all  other  governments  which  had  opposed 
the  measures  of  the  Romish  See. 


The  order  of  Jesuits  suppressed  by  Clement  XIV.  (by  a 
bull,  Dominus  ac  Redemptor  noster),  having  become 
obnoxious  at  Rome  by  attempts  to  erect  a  politico-hier- 
archical system,  independent  of  the  Papacy.  At  the  time 
of  its  suppression,  this  order  possessed,  in  39  provinces, 
24  professed  houses,  669  colleges,  61  novitiate  houses, 
176  seminaries,  335  residences,  273  missions,  22,589 
members.  After  this,  the  order  continues  to  exist,  es- 
pecially under  the  auspices  of  Russia  and  Prussia ;  with 
hopes  of  a  formal  restoration. 


*  Bereans,  in  Scotland. 


I774  Louis  XVI.  King  of  France. 

*  Commencement  of  war  between  Great  Britain  and 
America. 

The  French  Protestants  recover  their  rights. 


*  Theophilus  Lindsey  quits  the  Church  of  England, 
and  advocates  Unitarian  tenets. 

Settlements  or  Societies  of  Shakers  (Shaking  Quakers) 
established  in  America. 


*  *  Z.  Pearce,  Bishop  of  Rochester.    T  J.  G.  Tollner,  L. 


1775        *  David  Williams  endeavours  to  form  a  society  or  fra- 
ternity of  Deists  ;    without  any  permanent  result. 


The  pope,  who  died  this  year,  was  probably  poisoned 
by  Exjesuits.  Cardinal  Braschi  (Pius  VI.)  succeeds;  a 
friend  of  the  Jesuits. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  449 

177«5        #  Some  concessions  made  by  the  British  Government 
to  Roman  Catholics. 


t  C.  A.  Crusius,  L.     f  F.  E.  Rambach,  L. 


1776        *  United    States   of  America   independent   of  Great 
Britain. 


At  this  time,  the  number  of  Dissenting  Congregations 
in  England  (alone)  is  1509. 

Many  monasteries  suppressed  by  the  king  of  Sicily. 


f  Breitinger,  R. 


T  #  David  Hume,  a  sceptical  writer. 


I777  Maria  I.  Queen  of  Portugal. 


Upon   the  accession  of  Maria  I.  to  the  crown  of  Por- 
tugal, the  anti-papal  measures  of  that  court  cease. 


The  Wolfenbuttel  Fragments  published  by  Lessing. 


t  Zacharise,  L. 


1778        France  declares    in    favour   of  the   United  States  of 
America.     *  War  with  Great  Britain. 


Church  of  Rome.  —  The  pope  compels  Justinus  Fe- 
bronius  (J.  Nicholas  von  Hontheim  ;  see  1763)  to  retract 
his  anti-papal  propositions. 


In  Germany,  pseudo-philosophical  (or  rationalistic) 
principles  are  extensively  applied  to  subjects  of  theology. 
The  peculiar  truths  and  doctrines  of  Christianity  are 
gradually  explained  away,  diluted,  and  annulled.    The  pi  o- 

G   G 


\S 


450  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

I  gress  of  this  malady  is  favoured  by  the  circulation  of  the 
writings  of  English  and  French  deists,  by  the  influence 
of  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  by  the  weakness  of  German 
apologists. 

1778  t  C.  F.  Schmidt,  L. 


J  Voltaire  and  Rousseau  —  opponents  of  Christianity 


1779        Spain  acknowledges  the  United  States  of  America,  and 


declares  war  against  Great  Britain. 


#•  By  an  act  of  Parliament,  ministers  of  dissenting 
churches,  scrupling  to  declare  and  subscribe  assent  to  any 
of  the  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England  as  required  by 
the  Act  of  Toleration,  are  allowed  to  make  and  subscribe, 
instead  thereof,  a  declaration  of  Protestant  belief.  (Even 
this  qualification  was  subsequently  (1812)  rendered  unne- 
cessary.) 

I  *  W.Warburton,  Bishop  of  Gloucester.  |  J.  F.  Cotta,  L. 


I78O  Death  of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa. 

Joseph,  Emperor  alone. 
(He  endeavours  to  restrain  the  excessive  power  of  the 
pope,  and  to  remove  ecclesiastical  abuses.     In  his  resist- 
ance to  papal  encroachment  and  usurpation,  he  enters 
upon  an  extensive  plan  of  reform.) 


Rise  of  societies  of  Universalists  in  America; 


3781  Great  Britain  declares  war  against  Holland. 


The  emperor  publishes  an  Edict  of  Toleration,  and  grants 
to  the  Protestants  of  Hungary  their  religious  liberty,  and 
restoration  of  their  privileges. 

He  forbids  the  publication  of  papal  bulls  affecting  poli- 
tical matters  in  Germany,  without  the  imperial  sanction. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  451 

German  bishops  to  exercise  their  original  powers,  and 
made  independent  of  the  pope  by  an  oath  to  the  civil 
ruler.  Appeals  to  Rome  forbidden.  Monks  made  sub- 
ject to  the  diocesan  bishops.  The  people  permitted  to 
read  the  Scriptures,  The  pope  protests  against  these 
proceedings. 

1781  Among  other  reforms  effected  by  the  Emperor  Joseph 
were  included,  — an  improvement  of  the  liturgy  —  a  re- 
duction of  the  number  of  monks,  and  measures  for  the 
greater  efficiency  and  usefulness  of  monastic  institutions 
—  the  prohibition  of  superstitious  pilgrimages  and  pro- 
cessions—  and  adoption  of  means  for  the  improvement  of 
the  clergy. 

Images  removed  from  the  churches. 


to  1794.     University  of  Stuttgart. 
t  J.  A.  Ernesti,  L.    f  E.  H.  D.  Stosch,  R. 


Various  refutations  of  the  Wolfenbuttel  Fragments  ap  • 
pear  in  Germany. 

1782  The  pope  repairs  to  Vienna,  where  he  is  received  with 
great  respect  by  the  people ;  but  fails  in  his  attempt 
to  divert  the  emperor  from  his  plans  of  ecclesiastical 
reform. 

Sender,  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Halle,  promotes  (per- 
haps beyond  his  intention)  the  progress  of  Rationalism 
in  the  Lutheran  Church. 


t  Danov,  L. 


1^83        A  society  formed  for  the  purpose  of  printing  and  cir- 


culating the  works  of  Swedenborg. 


t  *  B.  Kennicot. 


G  G    "J 


452  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1783  t  D'Alembert,  an  opponent  of  Christianity. 

1784  |  c-  w-  F-  Walcll>  L- 


t  *  Anne  Lee  (Stanley),  "Mother  of  the  Elect,"  a 
fanatical  pretender  to  inspiration.  Her  delusions  excited 
some  attention  in  England  and  America.  She  claimed 
power  to  work  miracles,  and  to  speak  with  strange 
tongues. 

|  Diderot,  an  opponent  of  Christianity. 


1785        American  Episcopal  Church.  —  Dr.  Seabury,  Bishop  of 
Connecticut,  consecrated  by  five  Scotch  bishops. 


The  religious  liberty  of  the  Russian  (Greek)  Raskol- 
nites,  or  Separatists,  is  formally  recognised,  under  certain 
conditions. 

The  sect  of  the  Duchobortzi,  in  Russia,  is  now  consi- 
derable. Distinguished  from  the  orthodox  or  dominant 
church  chiefly  by  a  deeper  acquaintance  with  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, and  a  more  simple  and  practical  reception  of  its 
doctrines. 


Bahrdt  exercises  a  pernicious  influence  in  Germany. 


Moses  Mendelsohn. 


1786  Frederick  William  II.  King  of  Prussia. 


Congress  at  Ems. 
Four  German  archbishops  assert  their  metropolitan  rights 
against  papal  usurpation. 

The  Council  of  Pistoja,  under  the  influence  of  Scipio 
Ricci,  Archbishop  of  that  place,  adopts  the  Four  Articles 
of  the  Gallican  Church  ;  and  decrees  various  ecclesiastical 
improvements  in  opposition  to  the  papal  hierarchy. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  453 

1786        The  Council  of  Pistoja  asserts  the  Augustinian  doctrine 
of  grace. 

Joseph  II.  enjoins  the  use  of  the  vernacular  tongue  in 
the  celebration  of  divine  worship. 


University  of  Bonn  founded. 
t  J.  M.  Gotze,  L.      t  A.  F.  W.  Sack,  R. 


1787        Beginning  of  the  French   Revolution.     Meeting  of  the 
Notables. 


The  French  Government  again  extends  its  protection 
to  Protestants,  by  granting  them  civil  rights. 


In  a  national  council  held  at  Florence,  the  decrees  of 
the  Council  of  Pistoja  are  annulled,  and  the  Romish 
party  retains  the  upper  hand.  The  papal  party  finds 
means  also  to  nullify  the  proceedings  of  the  Congress 
at  Ems,  by  exciting  the  jealousy  of  the  German  bishops 
against  their  superiors,  the  archbishops,  who  met  on  that 
occasion. 

An  edict  of  Louis  XVIII.  (confirmed  by  Parliament 
in  1788),  in  favour  of  the  French  Protestants. 

Bishops  of  Philadelphia  and  New  York  consecrated  in 
England. 

The  Existence  of  God.  —  Kant  and  other  philosophers 
endeavour  to  establish  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  by 
moral  proofs,  rejecting  all  others.  Many  divines,  and 
others,  are  dissatisfied  with  this  line  of  argument. 


The  followers  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg  form  them- 
selves into  a  community,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Church 
of  the  New  Jerusalem."  The  sect  continues  to  spread 
in   Sweden,   France,  Germany,  Poland,  and   (especially) 


England. 


L^ 


G  G    3 


454  from  the  reformation  [Seventh 


1787 
1788 


1789 


1790 


t  *  R.  Lowth,  Bishop  of  London.     j  Herm.  Venema,  R. 


Charles  IV.  King  of  Spain. 


Some  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  labour  in  the  East 
Indies  during  this  century,  apparently  without  beneficial 
results. 

Religious  Edict  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  in  support  of 
orthodoxy  according  to  the  symbolical  books. 

*  Penal  laws  against  Scotch  Episcopalians  repealed. 

*  Calvinistic  Methodists  in  Wales  become  numerous. 


t  J.  A.  Cramer,  L.      t  G.  J.  Zollikoffer,  R.       t  Felbi- 
ger,  R.  C.  

The  States  General  of  France  assemble. 
Revolt  of  the  Netherlands. 


The  influence  of  Kant's  philosophy  upon  theology  be- 
comes evident,  especially  in  Germany. 


The  number  of  festivals  diminished  in  Spain. 


|  *  Philip  Skelton. 


Leopold  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 
Opposition  to  the  Papacy  decreased  in  Germany. 


The  Reformation  in  Germany,  attempted  by  Joseph  II., 
lost  itself  in  popular  tumults,  and  was  counteracted  by 
papal  machinations.  It  was  finally  crushed  by  the  death 
of  Joseph  this  year. 

Scipio  Ricci,  Archbishop  of  Pistoja  and  Prato,  deposed. 
(In  1804  or  1805  he  agreed  to  retract  his  principles;  he 
died  in  1810.)      Reformation  in  Tuscany  suppressed. 

The   French  Assembly  adopts  measures  against   the 


Period,)  to  the  present  time.  455 

(R.  C.)   Church  in  France,      Sale  of  Church  property. 
Monastic  vows  prohibited. 
1790        To    the    Methodists   now    belong,    in    England,    295 
preachers,  71,668  members;  in  America,  198  preachers, 
43,265  members. 


Summary  of  the  History,  Doctrine,  and  Discipline  of 
Friends,  written  at  the  desire  of  the  Meeting  for  Suffer- 
ings, and  published  this  year. 


f  J.  N.  von  Hontheim,  R.  C. 


1791  Progress  of  the  French  Revolution. 


The  French  clergy  almost  unanimously  refuse  to  take 
an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  new  Constitution :  expelled 
from  their  benefices. 

*  Society  of  United  Irishmen  established  in  Dublin. 

New  measures  for  the  support  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy 
in  Berlin.     Commission  of  Examination. 


t  *John  Wesley,  f  J.  S.  Semler,  L.  |  J-  D.  Michaelis,  L, 
f  J.  B.  Koppe,  L. 


I792  Francis  II.  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  IV.  King  of  Sweden* 
War  declared  by  France  against  Austria, 
National  Convention  of  France. 


Church  property  confiscated  in  France,  Belgium,  and 
Savoy. 

|  A.  G.  Spangenberg,  Bishop  of  the  Church  of  the 
United  Brethren,  a  reformer  or  second  founder  of  the 
society. 

*  Baptist  Missionary  Society  for  the  East  and  West 
Indies  founded. 

g  g  4 


456  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1 792        #  Johanna  Southcott,  a  pretended  prophetess,  assumes 
the  character  of  "  The  Woman  in  the  Wilderness." 


J.  F.  Schleusner's  Lexicon  of  the  New  Testament. 
t  J.  C.  Doederlein,  L.     f  C.  F.  Bahrdt,  L.     t  S  F.  N. 
Morus,  L. 

I793  Louis  XVI.  King  of  France,  beheaded. 

Robespierre.  —  Reign  of  Terror. 
War  declared  by  France  against  Great  Britain,  Spain, 
and  Holland. 

Second  partition  of  Poland  by  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Prussia. 

Temporary  suppression  of  the  public  profession  of  Christi- 
anity in  France. 

The  Church  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris,  and  many  others, 
converted  into  (so  called)  Temples  of  Reason.  Advocates 
of  Atheism  and  Deism  persecute  the  professors  of  Christi- 
anity. 

The  French  Republic  excommunicated. 


*  Fresh  concessions  of  the  British  Government  to 
Roman  Catholics.  Right  of  voting  at  elections  restored; 
disability  to  sit  in  Parliament  and  to  hold  civil  offices 
continued. 


t  Busching,  L.     f  Gerber,  R.  C. 


In  Germany,  Henke  describes  Christian  doctrine  on 
rationalistic  principles.  Storr  writes  in  greater  conformity 
with  Scripture. 

*  Thomas  Paine  writes  against  Christianity. 


1794        Tne    pope    condemns    eighty-five     propositions    from 
among  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Pistoja. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  457 

1794  f  Ildef.  Swartz,  R.  C. 


3795        Louis  XVIII.  assumes   the    title  of  king  of  France 
upon  the  death  of  the  dauphin,  or  Louis  XVII. 
Peace  between  France  and  Spain. 
The  French  Directory. 


#  London  Missionary  Society  formed. 


t  S.  Mursinna,  R.  C. 


*  In  England,  the  tenets  of  Socinus  gradually  prevail 
among  the  Presbyterian  churches,  which  very  gener- 
ally depart  from  the  scriptural  faith,  as  revived  and 
expounded  at  the  Reformation.  But  the  members  of  these 
churches  decline  in  number  ;  many  of  those  who  adhere 
to  catholic  doctrine  being  merged  in  Congregational  or 
Baptist  churches.  The  others  are  commonly  designated 
by  the  title  Unitarian. 


1796  Spain  declares  war  against  Great  Britain. 

Buonaparte  assumes  the  command  of  the  army  of  Italy. 
Successes  against  the  Austrians. 

Paul  I.  Emperor  of  Russia. 


In  France,  a  Theophilanthropic  Society  (of  Natural 
Religionists)  is  formed,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Christ- 
ian Church, 

*  Scotch  Missionary  Society  founded. 
*  Thirty -five  missionaries  sent  by  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  to  the  South  Sea  Islands. 


T  *  James  Fordyce.     f  J.  Danzer,   R.  C. 


In  Germany,  J.  W.  Schmidt  and  C.  F.  Amnion  apply 
the  prevailing  philosophy  (Rationalism)  to  Christian  doc- 
trine. 


458 


1797 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 


(Seventh 


Peace  of  Campo  Formio,  between  France  and  Austria. 
Frederick  William  III.  King  of  Prussia. 


Dutch  Missionary  Society  founded. 


*  Rise  of  Congregationalists,  or  Independents,  in  Scot- 
land. 

*  Formation    of  the    Methodist   New   Connection  in 
England. 


A  community  of  French  Protestants  formed  at  Delft, 
entitled  Christo  Sacrum,  with  a  view  to  the  union  of  all 
Protestant  churches,  on  the  basis  of  one  comprehensive 
confession  of  the  fundamental  articles  of  faith. 


t  G.  Less,  L. 


1798 


The  emperor  of  Russia,  the  king  of  Naples,  and  the 
Ottoman  Porte,  declare  war  against  the  French  Govern- 
ment. 

Berth ier  enters  Rome.  Abolishes  the  papal  govern- 
ment.    The  pope  made  prisoner,  and  removed  to  Sienna. 


*  Rebellion  in  Ireland,  by  disaffected  Roman  Catholics. 


t  Christian  Frederic  Schwartz. 


1799 


Successes  of  Austria  and  Russia  against  France. 
Buonaparte,  First  Consul  in  France. 


\J 


In  the  theological  schools  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  Ration- 
alism, or  pseudo-philosophy,  is  now  generally  erected  upon  the 
ruins  of  Christian  doctrine. 

The  Church  of  the  United  Brethren  becomes  instru- 
men tally  a  refuge  and  nursery  of  evangelical  truth. 


This  century  has  been  distinguished  by  the  publication 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  459 

of  many  new  translations  of  Scripture,  —  new  editions  and 
revisions  of  former  translations,  —  and  critical  revisions 
of  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek  text. 

Besides  this,  the  style  of  the  New  Testament  has  been 
carefully  compared  with  the  works  of  Greek  profane 
literature  (Raphel) ;  a  more  accurate  acquaintance  with 
Hebrew  has  been  acquired  by  the  cultivation  of  other 
Oriental  languages,  especially  Arabic  (Schultens) ;  and  fresh 
illustrations  of  the  sacred  text  have  been  obtained  by  an 
increased  knowledge  of  the  geography  and  manners  of 
Eastern  nations.  Numerous  expositions  of  Scripture, 
differing  in  kind  and  value,  have  appeared. 


1800  Progress  of  French  arms  in  Italy  and  Suabia. 

*   Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 


*   (English)  Church  Missionary  Society  established. 


Cardinal  Chiaramonte  elected  pope  (Pius  VII.)  ;  dis- 
posed at  first  to  adopt  conciliatory  and  moderate  mea- 
sures. 


The  moderate  Mennonites  re-unite,  the  whole  body 
having  gradually  become  Antitrinitarian,  and  havingother- 
wise  abandoned  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  Christianity. 

The  original  or  strict  Mennonites  retain  their  early 
tenets  ;  but  their  party  is  small. 


1801  Peace  of  Luneville,  between  Austria  and  France. 

Alexander  I.  Emperor  of  Russia. 
Armed  Neutrality  of  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 


Union  of  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches  in  the  South 
of  Russia. 

French  Concordat  with  the  pope. 

Roman  Catholic  religion  restored  in  France.    Gallican 
Church  placed  under  the  control  of  government. 

Synod    of   the    Church    of  the    United    Brethren    at 

Herrnhut. 

/ 


460  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1801        *  Rules  of  discipline  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dists. 

Severe  oppression  of  Protestants  in  Hungary. 


f  *  Hugh  Blair.     | J-  c-  Lavater,  R. 


1802 


Peace  of  Amiens. 
Buonaparte  consul  for  life ;  new  constitution  given  to 
France. 


The  French  Theophilanthropic  Society  at  an  end. 
F.  A.  Chateaubriand  writes  in  defence  of  the  Christian 
Religion. 


oJ 


Christo  Sacrum.  —  This  society,  having  increased  in 
number  and  influence,  is  recognised  by  the  Dutch  govern- 
ment. A  church  consecrated  this  year.  The  society 
afterwards  fails  to  attain  its  professed  object;  its  doctrine 
gradually  sinks  more  and  more  below  the  line  of  Scriptural 
truth ;  and  the  whole  institution  appears  likely  to  fall  to 
the  ground. 


t  S.  L.  E.  de  Marees,  R.    f  Alex.  Geddes,  R.  C. 


1803 


War  between  Great  Britain  and  France,  and  between 
Great  Britain  and  Holland. 


*  Methodist  Churches.  —  Wesleyan  Methodists  now 
reckon,  in  Great  Britain  and  foreign  parts,  —  Old  Con- 
nection, 819  preachers  (besides  supernumeraries),  224,774 
members  ;  New  Connection,  29  preachers,  5280  mem- 
bers. 

In  England,  the  Calvinistic  Methodists  form  a  portion 
of  the  Congregational  churches. 


t  J.  G.  Herder,  L. 


Several  universities  founded  in  Russia. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  461 

1804  Buonaparte,  Emperor  of  France, 

(crowned  by  the  pope). 
Francis  II.  abandons  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany, 
and  assumes  that  of  Emperor  of  Austria. 


#  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  founded. 


t  J.  G.  Spalding,  L.   f  W.  A.  Teller,  L.   |  C.  C.  Storr,  L. 
(|  Immanuel  Kant.) 


f  #  Joseph  Priestley,  Unitarian, 


1805        Alliance  between  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Sweden,  against  France. 

Treaty  of  Presburg,  between  France  and  Austria,  after 
the  battle  of  Austerlitz. 


1806  Erection  of  new  kingdoms  by  Buonaparte. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 
Successes  of  France  against  Prussia. 


The  pope  now  asserts  bold  hierarchical  principles,  and 
strenuously  endeavours  to  maintain  pontifical  dignity  and 
power. 

In  China,  where  the  (R.  C.)  Missionary  Church  had 
begun  to  revive,  a  violent  opposition  was  excited  this 
year,  in  consequence  of  a  dispute  among  the  missionaries. 


1807        Peace  of  Tilsit.     Treaty  of  Fontainbleau.     Conquest 
of  Portugal  by  the  French. 


t  J.  A.  Nosselt,  L.    f  J-  F.  Le  Bret,  L.   T  G.  F.  Seller,  L. 


1808        Ferdinand  VII.  King  of  Spain.     Buonaparte  proclaims 
his  brother  Joseph  king.     War  in  Spain. 


Frederick  V.  King  of  Denmark. 


462  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1808        *  Society  for  the  Conversion  of  the  Jews  established  in 
London. 


*  Unitarian  tenets  and  societies  make  some  progress  in 
America  and  England. 


t  J.  M.  Schrock,  L.  (Church  History). 


1809  Charles  XIII.  King  of  Sweden. 

Treaty  of  Presburg,  between  France  and  Austria. 


The  pope  having  failed  to  comply  with  the  demands  of 
Napoleon,  is  made  prisoner  and  carried  to  Fontainbleau. 
The  States  of  the  Church  are  annexed  to  the  French  Em- 
pire, and  Rome  declared  free. 

*  (Roman)  Catholic  Association  in  Ireland,  for  obtain- 
ing removal  of  all  civil  disabilities. 


Universities  of  Helmstadt  and  Rinteln  suppressed. 
t  J.  Eberhard,  L.     f  G.  S.  Steinbart,  L.     |  H.  P.  C. 
Henke,  L.   j  Ziegler,  L. 


1810  War  in  the  Peninsula. 

Convocation  of  the  Spanish  Cortes.    Bernadotte,  Crown 
Prince  of  Sweden. 


Great  American  Missionary  Society  founded  at  Boston. 


#  The  Reformed  Presbyterian  Synod  of  Scotland. 
Union  of  Old  Scotch  Dissenters,  adherents  of  the  First 
Reformation  in  1560. 


University  of  Berlin  founded. 


1811        *  George,  Prince  of  Wales,  Regent  of  Great  Britain. 


*•  New    code   of  canons   for    the    Scottish    Episcopal 
Church. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  463 

*  Additional  "  Regulations  "  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic 
Methodists. 


University  of  Christiana  founded. 


*  War  between  Great  Britain  and  America. 
Alliance  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia.     War  between 
Russia  and  France. 

Disasters  of  Buonaparte  and  the  French  in  Russia. 


j"  *  Henry  Martyn,  Missionary  in  Persia  and  the  East 
Indies. 

"f  Platon,  Archbishop  of  Moscow. 


University  of  Genoa  founded. 
t  J.  J.  Griesbach,  L.    f  F.  V.  Reinhard,  L. 


Note  concerning  Protestant  Churches. 

Evangelical  or  Lutheran  churches  prevail  in  Saxony, 
Prussia,  Wurtemburg,  Hanover,  Northern  Germany,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Norway.  There  are  also  some  in  Holland, 
Russia,  Poland,  Hungary,  and  America. 

Reformed  or  Calvinian  churches  are  found  chiefly  in 
Switzerland,  Holland,  the  Palatinate,  France,  and  Scot- 
land. 

Their  points  of  difference  relate  chiefly  to — the  corporeal 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist,  the  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination, church  government  and  polity,  and  certain 
rites  and  ceremonies.  These  last-named  differences  exist 
principally  with  respect  to  —  the  use  of  images  in  churches, 
vestments  of  the  clergy,  private  confession  of  sins,  use  of 
wafers  in  the  eucharist,  use  of  exorcism  at  baptism. 

About  this  time,  debates  are  active  in  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  England,  on  points  connected  with  justification 
by  faith,  and  other  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Gospel. 
A  low  and  unworthy  method  of  treating  these  great  sub- 
jects had  prevailed  during  the  latter  half  of  the  preceding 
century;  but  when  the  question  came  to  be  fully  dis- 
cussed, it  appeared  that  the  great  majority  of  Anglican 


464  from  the  reformation  {Seventh 

divines  had  not  fallen  into  any  irretrievable  error ;  and 
their  confession  of  evangelical  truth,  in  conformity  with  the 
unaltered  standards  of  the  national  church,  became  more 
distinct  and  prevalent  than  it  had  been  for  some  time  past. 
The  beginning  of  this  century  brought  with  it  a  revival 
of  Christian  doctrine  from  slumber,  rather  than  a  restor- 
ation from  ruins.  For  this  happy  circumstance  we  are  in- 
debted,— under  the  divine  providence  of  the  Great  Head 
of  the  Church,  —  to  the  Articles  and  Homilies,  which  had 
been  upheld  in  their  integrity,  and  in  their  demand  to 
the  assent  and  consent  of  all  officiating  ministers  of  the 
Establishment,  —  and,  more  especially,  to  our  invaluable 
Liturgy,  a  form  of  sound  words,  full  of  scriptural  doctrine, 
breathing  the  spirit  of  genuine  devotion,  and  eminently 
adapted  to  discharge  the  office  of  an  unflinching  witness 
of  divine  truth,  and  a  faithful  guide  in  the  pursuit  of 
holiness,  peace,  and  eternal  life. 
181*2  *  Number  of  Dissenting  Congregations  in  England  and 
Wales.  —  In  England,  252  Presbyterian,  799  Independ- 
ent, 532  Baptist;  in  Wales,  18  Presbyterian,  225  Inde- 
pendent, 176  Baptist.  —  Total  2002. 

*  Congregational  Union  of  Scotland, 
(Number  of  their  churches  in  1836,  91). 
#  Methodist  Churches.  The  Wesleyan  Methodists  now 
reckon  in  Great  Britain  and  Foreign  Parts,  Old  Con- 
nection, 1401  preachers  (besides  supernumeraries), 
405,073  members;  New  Connection,  4  preachers, 
8067  members. 

1813  Alliance  of  Russia  and  Prussia. 
Successes    of  the    Allies    against    France.     Battle   of 

Leipsic. 

1814  Continued  successes  of  the  Allies.  Triumphant  entrance 
into  Paris.  Abdication  of  Buonaparte.  Louis  XVIII. 
enters  Paris. 

Peace  of  Paris,  between  the  Allies  and  France. 
Treaty  of  Ghent,  between  Great  Britain  and  America. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  465 

1814  *  Methodist  Missionary  Society  completely  organised. 
(The  foundation  of  such  a  society  may  be  considered  as 
having  been  laid  by  John  Wesley.) 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Society  founded. 


The  pope  recovers  his  liberty  and  the  States  of  the 
Church.  He  carries  into  effect  the  principles  of  the 
papal  hierarchy,  as  far  as  the  circumstances  of  the  times 
permit.  Restores  the  order  of  Jesuits,  and  the  Spanish 
Inquisition. 

The  order  of  Jesuits  restored  by  a  bull  (Sollicitudo 
Omnium)  of  Pius  VII.  From  this  time  its  influence  pro- 
gressively increased,  until  it  received  a  check  by  the 
second  French  Revolution  (of  1830). 


T  *  Johanna  Southcott.     A  small  sect,   professing  to 
believe  in  her  pretended  inspiration,  still  survives. 

t  W.  Mlinscher,  R. 


1815  Buonaparte  lands  in  France  from  Elba. 

Renewal  of  war.     Battle  of  Waterloo,  and  final  over- 
throw of  Buonaparte. 

Treaty  of  Paris. 
William  I.  King  of  the  Netherlands. 


German  League. 


Renewed  persecution  of  (R.  C.)  Christians  in  China. 


(1814 — 1816.)  A  sanguinary  persecution  of  French 
Protestants  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Nismes. 

Roman  Catholics  in  Switzerland  commence  efforts  for 
the  organisation  of  a  national  church,  immediately  sub- 
ject to  the  pope. 

*  The  bishopric  of  Calcutta  erected,  in  connection  with 
the  English  Episcopal  Church. 


HIJ 


466 
1815 

y     1816 


1817 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 


(Seventh 


Universities  of  Wittemberg  and  Halle  united. 
|  J.  G.  Rosen mtiller,  L. 


Evangelical  Missionary  Society  founded  at  Basle  (es- 
pecially for  Mohammedan  countries,  and  Western  Africa.) 


The  king  of  Prussia  nominates  two  titular  bishops  of 


the  Evangelical  Church  of  Prussia. 


1818 


Universities  of  Luthick  and  Ghent  founded. 
t  X  F.  C.  Lbffler,  L.      t  Meyer,  L. 


United  Missionary  Society  founded  at  New  York. 


French  Concordat.     Bavarian  Concordat. 

Ecclesiastical  Constitution  of  Poland. 
Tercentenary  of  the  Beginning  of  the  Heformation. 
Union  of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches 
in  Prussia. 
The  Prussian  government  begins  to  adopt  active,  and 
even  oppressive,  measures  for  the  introduction  of  episco- 
pacy, and  the  use  of  a  liturgy  in  the  National  Protestant 
Church.      Several  titular  bishops  now  created. 


f  F.  S.  G.  Sack,  R.     |  J.  Jahn,  R.  C. 


Intolerant  opposition  made  by  the  (Socinian)  pastors 
of  Geneva  to  the  promulgation  of  Scriptural  doctrine. 
Mournful  prevalence  of  Infidelity  at  Geneva. 


Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
Charles  John,  King  of  Sweden, 


Neapolitan  Concordat. 
New  constitution  of  the  Lutheran  churches  in  Hol- 
land. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  467 

1818        *  The  British  Parliament  grants  one  million  pounds 
sterling  for  the  building  of  churches  and  chapels. 


1819       American  Methodist  Missionary  Society  established. 

Auxiliary  Missionary  Societies  at  Frankfort,  Bremen, 
Tubingen,  and  Dresden.' 

A  large  portion  of  the  South  Sea  Islanders  have  now 
embraced  Christianity. 


Jesuits  expelled  from  Russia. 


University  of  Petersburg  founded. 


1 820  *  George  IV.  King  of  Great  Britain. 

Revolutions  in  Europe. 


Missionary  Society  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
of  North  America  founded. 


#  The  United  Associate  Synod  of  the  Secession  Church 
in  Scotland. 


The  order  of  the  Liguorians,  or  Redemptorists,  founded 
in  1732,  hitherto  without  much  effect,  rises  to  some  im- 
portance at  Vienna. 


t  K.  C.  Tittman,  L. 

In  Germany,  the  credit  of  Rationalism  is  on  the  decline  ; 
the  evangelical  theology  and  church  awake  from  their 
slumber;  fruits  of  the  pious  labours  of  Spener  and 
Franke  begin  to  re-appear ;  learning  and  science  again 
offer  some  homage  to  Scriptural  truth  and  doctrine:  (here 
appears  ground  for  hope  that  the  Holy  Spirit  of  Truth 
graciously  designs  to  make  a  gradual  return  to  his  almost 
deserted  habitations  —  the  Protestant  churches  of  the 
Continent. 

II  h   2 


468  from  the  reformation  (Seventh 

1821  Charles  X.  King  of  France. 


Prussian  Concordat. 


t  Hanstein,  L. 

*  Since  the  commencement  of  this  century,  various  sub- 
divisions of  the  Methodist  Society,  besides  those  already 
named,  have  taken  place.  The  newly  detached  bodies 
are,  —  the  Primitive  Methodists,  Bryanites,  Indepen- 
dent Methodists,  Wesleyan  Protestant  Methodists,  and 
members  of  the  Wesleyan  Association. 


1822  *  At  the  fifteenth  conference  of  the  members  of  the 
New  Jerusalem  Church  (Swedenborgians)  held  at  Man- 
chester this  year,  twenty-four  congregations  were  repre- 
sented. The  number  of  complete  members  amounted  to 
nearly  3000.  In  America  the  members  are  estimated  at 
4000.  The  peculiar  tenets  of  this  sect  are  a  kind  of  phi- 
losophical fanaticism,  rather  than  any  modification  of 
Christian  doctrine. 


t  J.  F.  Flatt,  L.    t  Bertholdt,  L. 


823 


Berlin  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Evangelical  Mis- 


sions among  the  Heathen  founded. 


Union  of  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches  at  Mar- 
purg. 

Cardinal  della  Genga  elected  pope  (Leo  XIL) ;  a  friend 
of  science,  but  a  strenuous  asserter  of  papal  claims.  He 
condemns  the  Bible  Society,  restores  the  prisons  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  proclaims  the  Jubilee  to  be  celebrated 
in  1825. 

*  Methodist  Churches.  —  The  Wesleyan  Methodists  in 
Great  Britain  and  Foreign  Parts  now  include,  Old 
Connection,  2000  preachers,  553,937  members  ;  New 
Connection,  48  preachers,  10,972  members. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  469 

*  Confession  of  Faith  of  the  Welsh  Calvinistic 
Methodists. 

*  Orange  Lodges  in  Ireland. 

Conference  at  the  Hague,  between  the  Church  of  Utrecht 
and  a  papal  nuncio,  with  a  view  to  reconciliation ;  in- 
effectual. 

(The  Church  of  Utrecht  refuses  subscription  to  the 
condemnation  of  Jansenius  by  Alexander  VII. ;  rejects 
the  bull  Unigenitus ;  and  claims  the  privilege  of  electing 
its  own  bishops.) 

1824  Continued  suppression  of  (R.  C.)  Christianity  in  China. 
At  this  period,  reports  reckon  47,000  native  Christians, 
and  three  European  priests,  in  that  country. 

Paris  Evangelical  Missionary  Society  founded. 


Hanoverian  Concordat. 
Edict  of  the  Council  of  State  in  the  Canton  of  Vaud 
prohibiting  all  assemblies  for  religious  worship,  except 
those  of  the  national  church,  under  penalties  of  fine  and 
imprisonment.  (Efforts  of  the  Rationalists  in  support  of 
their  peculiar  tenets.) 


In  England  some  controversy  prevails  respecting  the 
doctrine  of  Baptismal  Regeneration.  To  a  great  extent,  this 
is  no  more  than  a  dispute  about  words.  But  there  exists 
also  a  substantial  difference  of  opinion,  according  as  parties 
adopt  or  reject  the  Augustinian  doctrine  relating  to  Pre- 
destination and  Grace. 

Differences  and  controversies  relating  to  the  said 
Augustinian  tenets  exist  among  members  of  the  English 
National  Church,  as  well  as  in  the  Church  of  Rome  and 
other  Christian  communities.  These  differences  may 
long  continue,  but  without  necessarily  obscuring  the 
essential  doctrines  of  the  Gospel ;  and,  it  is  to  be  hoped, 
without  breach  of  Christian  charity. 


1825  t  St.  Simon. 

H  H    3 


^70  from  the  reformation  {Seventh 

1825        Rise  of  a  small  sect  of  visionaries,  or  pretended  pro- 
phets, in  New  York. 


f  G.  C.  Knapp,  L.     f  J.  S.  Vater,  L. 


1826        American  Inland  Missionary  Society  founded  at  New 
York. 


The   Roman   Catholic    clergy   of  Silesia   petition  for 
ecclesiastical  reform. 


*  Rise  of  the  Irvingites,  a  small  sect  of  fanatics, 
making  pretensions  to  miraculous  gifts,  attached  to  Ed- 
ward Irving,  a  Scotch  minister. 


t  K.  F.  Staudlin,  L.   f  Gabler,  L.   f  Bengel,  L.   f  Caj. 
Weiller,  R.  C. 

lo27  A  Missionary  Society  founded  at  Lausanne. 


Concordat  of  the  Province  of  the  Upper  Rhine. 


Destructive  fire  at  Abo  in  Finland.  The  university 
transferred  to  Helsingfors. 

f  J.  G.  Eickhorn,  L.  f  Thadd.  Dereser,  R.  C.  f  G. 
Keller,  R.  C. 

1828  *  Repeal  of  the  Test  Act. 


General    Conference    of    the    ( Swedenborgian)    New 
Church  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Catechism  of  the  New  Church. 


#   University  of  London  founded. 
T  A.  H.  Niemeyer,  L.     f  H.  G.  Tzschirner,  L. 


•1829  Rhenish  Missionary  Society  established. 


Period.)  to  the  present  time.  471 

1829  Castiglione  elected  pope  (Pius  VIII.). 


*  Act  for  the  Relief  of  Roman  Catholics  of  Great 
Britain  from  Civil  Disabilities  (commonly  called  Roman 
Catholic  Emancipation). 


#  The  English  Quakers,  following  the  example  of  a  por- 
tion of  their  body  in  America  (1828)  repudiate  the  ideal- 
istic system  of  the  majority  of  their  brethren,  who,  in 
accordance  with  the  teaching  of  Elias  Hicks,  virtually 
deny  the  deity  of  Christ,  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  other  positive  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  hold 
various  opinions  tending  to  a  rationalistic  nullification  of 
the  Gospel.     Divisions  and  secessions. 

*  The  number  of  Friends  in  England,  Wales,  and  Ire- 
land, is  computed  at  about  30,000.  In  the  United  States 
of  America,  the  Society  reckons  220,000  members. 

St.  Simonians  in  Paris. 


1830  *  William  IV.  King  of  Great  Britain. 

Revolution  in  France  and  Belgium. 
Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the  French. 


In   France,   the  Revolutionary  Charter  gives  to  Pro- 
testants equal  rights  and  privileges  with  Roman  Catholics. 


f  F.  Munter,  L. 

Christian  doctrine,  as  embodied  in  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg  and  other  symbolical  books,  is  now  more  gener- 
ally received  by  members  of  the  Protestant  churches  in 
Germany  and  other  parts  of  the  Continent.  But  the 
amount  of  error  which  still  remains  in  those  communities 
is  so  great,  and  the  inclination  to  false  philosophy  so 
strong,  that  there  is  some  cause  to  fear  lest  the  modern 
admixture  of  truth  may  not  serve  to  strengthen  and  per- 
petuate false  doctrines,  which  often  retain  a  more  per- 
manent hold  upon  men's  minds  when  modified  and 
h  H  4 


472 


FROM    THE    REFORMATION 


{Seventh 


1831 


1832 


adorned,  than  when  presented  in  all   their  baldness  and 
deformity. 

The  state  of  foreign  churches,  at  this  moment,  calls  for 
our  Christian  sympathy  and  prayers ;  and  ought  to  serve 
as  a  warning  against  the  admission  of  false  principles  into 
our  own  creed;  against  the  insidious  influence  of  super- 
stition, will-worship,  and  deference  to  human  authority 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  no  less  pernicious  effect  of  false 
philosophy  and  the  pride  of  reason  on  the  other.  The 
Bible,  the  Bible  alone,  is  the  Religion  of  Pro- 
testants. 


1 833 


Leopold  I.  King  of  the  Belgians. 
Otho,  King  of  Greece. 


Mauro  Cappellari  elected  pope  (Gregory  XVI. ). 

The  Abbe  Chatel  excommunicated,  on  account  of  his 
attempts  to  erect  a  French  National  Church,  independent 
of  Rome. 

Union  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of  Wurtemburg 
for  the  abolition  of  the  law  of  celibacy. 


t  J.  F.  Schleusner,  L.     f  J-  E.  C.  Schmidt,  L.     t  T.  F. 
Stange,  R. 

Partial  revival  of  Christianity  at  Geneva. 


Gregory  XVI.  addresses  a  letter  to  the  bishops  of 
Bavaria  against  mixed  marriages,  and  concerning  the 
danger  of  familiar  intercourse  with  Protestants. 


The  impostor  Matthias  at  New  York. 


t  J.  A.  H.  Tittman,  L.     |  E.  Zimmerman,  L. 


*  A  commission  for  the  better  distribution  of  Church 
property  in  England. 

*  Ten   bishoprics  in  Ireland  suppressed,  with  a  view 
to  an  improved  application  of  their  revenues. 


Period.)  to   the  present  time.  473 

*  Declaration  of  Faith  and  Order,  adopted  and  put  forth 
by  the  Congregational  Union  of  England  and  Wales;  but 
not  as  a  test  or  creed  for  subscription. 
1833  *  Methodist  Churches.  —  The  Wesleyan  Methodists,  in 
Great  Britain  and  Foreign  Parts,  now  amount  to,  Old 
Connection,  3410  preachers,  914,131  members;  New 
Connection,  63  preachers,  14,784  members.  (More  than 
one  half  in  the  United  States  of  America.) 


*  Fanatical  pretensions  of  the  Irvingites  excite  increased 
attention.     Edward  Irving  suspended  by  the  Presbytery, 


t   G.  J.  Planck,  L.     f  Colin,  L. 


1834  Prussian  Agenda, 

a  code  of  regulations  for  government  of  the  churches, 
and  conduct  of  divine  worship,  issued  by  the  Prussian 
government.  Many  of  the  pastors  refusing  to  adopt 
this  code,  the  government  afterwards  had  recourse  to 
compulsory  measures.  Recusants  suspended  and  de- 
prived. 


f  *-  Edward  Irving. 


University  of  Brussels  founded, 
*f  F.  E.  D.  Schleiermacher,  L. 
1836  t  *  Edward  Burton. 


1837  *  Victoria,  Queen  of  Great  Britain. 


Protestant  Churches  of  France. — At  this  time,  France 
possesses  366  pastors  of  the  Reformed  Church,  and  230 
of  the  Lutheran. 

The  Protestant  churches  of  France  have  not  altogether 
escaped  those  errors  of  a  false  philosophy,  by  which  Christ- 
ian truth  has  been  undermined  in  Germany  and  Swit- 
zerland.     But  there  is  reason  to  hope  for  an  extensive 


474  FROM    THE    REFORMATION  (Seventh 

revival  of  the  doctrines  and  spirit  of  the  Gospel  among 
them. 


1837  Restless  efforts  of  the  Romish  party  to  restore  papal 
ascendancy  in  Prussia.  The  king  imprisons  some  Roman 
Catholic  bishops  for  contempt  of  the  laws  and  breach  of 
their  engagement  with  reference  to  mixed  marriages. 
The  dispute  between  the  government  and  the  Romish  See 
continues. 


Roman  Catholics  acquire  a  great  increase  of  political 
power  in  Great  Britain. 


In  England,  some  influential  divines  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  declare  their  adherence  to  certain  erroneous  doc- 
trines and  false  pi^etensions,  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of 
ecclesiastical  superstition  and  tyranny.  Thus  we  are 
threatened  with  a  revival  of  errors  and  fables  which  were 
(more  or  less)  exploded  at  the  Reformation.  In  the  mean- 
time, the  Bible  is  a  great  and  unflinching  Protestant. 
Truth  must  prevail  at  last.  —  "  It  is  the  Lord,  let  Him 
do  what  seemeth  Him  good  !" 


Some  remains  of  ancient  Oriental  sects,  or  Christian 
communities,  exist  to  the  present  day,  without  having 
been  merged  in  the  Church  of  Rome.     These  are 

I.  Nestorian  or  Chaldean  Christians,  —  a  part  of  the 
church  settled  on  the  coast  of  Malabar  (the  other  part 
having  conformed  to  the  Church  of  Rome). 

II.  Monophysites  ;  namely, 

1.  Syrian  Jacobites,  under  a  patriarch  at  Antioch 

(a  small  portion  of  their  body  having  been 
united  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  under  a  patri- 
arch at  Aleppo). 

2.  Copts,  in  Egypt,  under  a  patriarch  at  Alexan- 
dria. 

3.  Armenians,  under  their  own  catholicos,  resident 

in  Persia  (part  of  this  body  only  having  joined 
the  Romish  Church). 


Period.) 


TO    THE    PRESENT    TIME. 


475 


4.  Abyssinians,  under  a  head  subordinate  to  the 

Coptic  patriarch  (subject  to  the  Romish  yoke 

only  for  a  short  period,  at  the  beginning  of  the 

seventeenth  century). 

III.  Monothelites ;  i.e.  the  Maronites  of  Mount  Lebanon. 

Although  nominally  united  to  the  Romish  Church,  they  re- 

tian  a  considerable  degree  of  independence,  under  their 

own  patriarchs,  and  some  ancient  institutions  and  customs, 

e.g.  marriage  of  their  clergy,  divine  service  in  the  vernacular 

tongue,  administration  of  the  communion  in  both  kinds. 


List    of    Popes,    Patriarchs,  and  Archbishops    or 
Canterbury,  from  the  Year  1556  to  1837. 


1556.  *  Cardinal  Pole. 
1559.  Pius  IV. 

—  *  Matthew  Parker. 

1565.  Metrophanes  III. 

1566.  Pius  V. 

1572.  Gregory  XIII. 

—  Jeremiah  II. 
Metrophanes  deposed. 

1575.  *  Edmund  Grindal. 

1579.  Metrophanes  III. 

restored. 

1 580.  Jeremiah  I. 

restored. 
1583.  *  John  Whitgift. 

—  Pachomhts  II.  and 
Theoleptus  II. 

during   a  second    temporary  deposition 
of  Jeremiah. 

1585.  Sixtus  V. 

1590.  Urban  VII. 

—  Gregory  XIV. 

1591.  Innocent  IX. 

—  Clement  VIII. 
1594.  Matthew  II. 

—  Gabriel  I. 

after  the  abdication  of  Matthew. 


1594-   Theophanes 

succeeded  Gabriel. 
1595.  Matthew  II. 

restored. 

1600  Neophytus  I 

Matthew  deposed. 

1601.  Matthew  II 

restored. 

1602.  Raphael  II 

1604.  *  Richard  Bancroft. 

1605.  Leo  XI. 

—  Paul  V. 

1606.  Neophytus 

restored. 
1610.    Timothy  II. 

—  *  George  Abbot. 
1621.  Gregory  XV. 

—  Cyril  Lucaris 

frequently    deposed    and    restored. 

(Gregory  IV. 

Anthymius  II 

Cyril  II. 

Athanasius  II. 

Neophytus  II). 
1623.  Urban  VIII. 
1633.  *  William  Laud. 


476 


from  the  reformation,  etc.      {Seventh  Period.) 


1639.  Parthenius  I 

1644.  Innocent  X. 

—  Parthenius  II. 

1645.  *  Laud  beheaded. 

See  of  Canterbury  vacant. 

1646.  Joannicus  II. 

Parthenius  II.  deposed. 

1647.  Parthenius  II. 

restored. 
1650.  Joannicus  II. 

restored.      Continual  changes. 

{Cyril  III. 

Paisius  I. 

Parthenius  III. 

Gabriel  II). 
1655.  Alexander  VII. 
1657.  Parthenius  IV. 

frequently  deposed  and  restored. 

Dionysius  III. 

Clement. 

Methodius  III. 

Dionysius  IV. 

Gerasimus  II). 
1660.  *  William  Juxon. 
1663.  *  Gilbert  Sheldon. 
1667.  Clement  IX. 
1670.  Clement  X. 

1676.  Innocent  XI. 

1677.  *  William  Sancroft. 
1689.  Alexander  VIII. 
1691.  Innocent  XII. 

—  *  John  Tillotson. 
1694.  *  Thomas  Tenison. 

Perpetual  changes  in  the  See  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  confusion  in  the  succes- 
sion. 

The    names    of   the    Patriarchs   who 


succeeded    Parthenius    are   the   follow- 
ing:— 

Athanasius  III. 

lames. 

Callinicus  II. 

Neophytus  III. 

Gabriel  III. 

Neophytus  IV. 

Cyprian. 

Athanasius  IV. 

Cyril  V. 

Comus  II. 

Jeremiah  III. 

Paisius  II. 

Seraphim  (1733). 
1700.  Clement  XL 
1715.  *  William  Wake. 
1721.  Innocent  XIII. 
1724.  Benedict  XIII. 
1730.  Clement  XII. 
1737  *  John  Potter. 
1740.  Benedict  XIV. 
1747  *  Thomas  Herring. 

1757.  *  Matthew  Hutton. 

1758.  Clement  XIII. 
—     *  Thomas  Seeker. 

1768.  *  Frederic  Cornwallis. 
1769-  Clement  XIV. 
1775.  Pius  VI. 
1783.  *John  Moore. 
1800.  Pius  VII. 
1805.  *C. M.Sutton. 
1823.  Leo  XII. 

1828.  *  William  Howley. 

1829.  Pius  VIII. 
1831.  Gregory  XVI. 


N.B.  Councils  possess  comparatively  little  importance  after  the  close  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  in  1563.  Such  of  them  as  are  worthy  of  note,  as  affecting  the 
interests  of  the  Church  to  any  extent,  are  recorded  in  the  General  Chronology. 


END    OF    THE    SEVENTH    PERIOD. 


INDEX. 


The  numbers  denote  the  years  under  which  the  several  articles  are  described  or  mentioned. 


Abbadie,  James,  1727. 
Abelard,  1125;    1142. 
Abulpharagius,  Gregory,  1286. 
Acacius,  Bp.  of  Csesarea,  358. 
Acacius,    Patriarch    of   Constantinople, 

472;  478  ;   484;  489. 
Acceptants,  1717. 
Achillas,  282. 

Act  of  the  Six  Articles,  1539  ;  1546. 
Act  of  Uniformity,  1662. 
Act  of  Toleration,  1689;   1779. 
Acta  Sanctorum,  1643. 
Acts  of  Pilate,  33;  311. 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  64. 
Adalbert  of  Prague,  997. 
Adamnan,  695. 

Adiaphoristic  Controversy,  1548. 
Admonition  to  Parliament,  1572. 
Ado,  875. 

Adolphus  of  Nassau,  Emp.  Ger.,  1291. 
Adoptian  Controversy,  787  ;  792;  794; 
799;  817. 

Adrian,  Emp.,  117;  at  Alexandria,  120; 
at  Athens,  122;  at  Rome,  125;  let- 
ters of,  126;   129. 

Advertisements,  1565  ;  1566. 

iElia  Capitolina,  135. 

./Eneas  of  Gaza,  485. 

iEneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini,  1439;  1447; 
1456;   1458. 

iEpinus,  John,  1548. 

Aerius,  368. 

Aetius,  358. 

Agapetus,  536. 

Agenda,  Prussian,  1834. 

Agnoetae,  521. 

Agobard,  815  ;  833  ;  834. 

Agricola,  John,  1566. 

Alan  of  Lille,  1294. 

Alban,  303. 

Albert  the  Great,  1 280. 

Albert  of  Austria,  Emp.  Germ.,  1438. 

Albigenses,  1198  ;  1208. 

Albinus,  62. 

Alciato,  Paul,  1565. 

Alcimus  Avitus,  525. 

Alcuin,  735;  760;  763;  782;  793; 
794  ;   799  ;   804. 

Alexander,  Bp.  of  Jerusalem,  214. 

Alexander  Severus,  Emp.,  222. 


Alexander,  Emp.  E.,  911. 
Alexander  of  Hales,  1245. 
Alexander,  Natalis,  1724. 
Alexandria,  Catechetical  School  of,  175; 

180;    188;    220;    231;    232;    247; 

261  ;  282. 
Alexius    I.     (Comnenus),     Emp.     E., 

1081. 
Alexius  II.,  Emp.  E.,  1180. 
Alexius  III.,  Emp.  E.,  1195. 
Alexius  IV.,  Emp.  E.,  1204. 
Alexius    V.       (Ducas       Murzuphilus), 

Emp.  E.,  1204. 
Alfred,  878;   880;   884. 
Alliance,  Catholic  or  Holy,  1538. 
All  Saints,  Festival  of,  611  ;   830. 
All  Souls,  Festival  of,  998. 
Allix,  Peter,  1717. 
Alogi,  203. 

Alombrades,  1575  ;    1623. 
Alp  Arslan,  1063;  1065;  1071. 
Alting,  Henry,  1644. 
Alting,  James,  1679. 
Amalric  of  Bene,  1200;   1209. 
Ambrose,Bp.  of  Milan,  374;  380;  388; 

390;   397. 
Ammon,  C.  F.,  1796. 
Ammonius  Saccas,  204  ;  226  ;   232. 
Amphilochius,  394. 
Amyraldus,  Moses,  1664. 
Anabaptists,  1522;  1528,   1529;    1534; 

1537;   1601  ;   1612;    1645. 
Anastasius  I.,  Emp.  E.,  491. 
Anastasius  II.,  Emp.  E.,  713. 
Anastasius,  monk,  686. 
Anastasius,  librarian  at  Rome,  $64. 
Ancyra,  Council  of,  358 
Andreas,  James,  1590. 
Andreas,  J.  V.,  1615;  1654. 
Andreas,  of  Caesarea,  491. 
Andreas,  Antony,  1320. 
Andronicus  I.   (Comnenus),    Emp.  E. , 

1183. 
Andronicus  II.,  Emp.  Const.,  1283. 
Andronicus  III.,  Emp.  Const,  1328. 
Anglo-Saxons,   450;    460;  521;   527; 

547  ;  678;   826. 
Anomoeans.      See  Arianism. 
Ansegius,  871. 
Anselm,  1089;   1097;   1106. 
Ansgar,  826  ;  828  ;  831 ;  834  ;  855;  864, 


478 


INDEX. 


Anthemius,  Emp.  W.,  467. 

Anthimus,  536. 

Anthropomorphites,  939. 

Antiburghers,  1747. 

Anticocceians.      See    Cocceian    Contro- 
versy. 

Antidicomarianites,  380. 

Antinomians,  1643;   1645;   1690. 

Antinomistian  Controversy,  1539. 

Antioch,  Church  of,  40 ;  41  ;   47  ;  48. 

Antioch,  Councils  of,  265  ;  269  ;  341  ; 
358. 

Antioch,  School  of,  297. 

Antoninus  Pius,  Emp.,  138. 

Antony,  309  ;  356. 

Antony,  Monks  of,  1095. 

Aphthartodocetae,  521. 

Apocrisiarii,  596  ;   end  of  7th  cent. 

Apocryphal  Gospels,  &c.  155. 

Apollinaris,    elder   and   younger,    362 ; 
378. 

Apollonius,  180. 

Apollonius  of  Tyana,  303. 

Apologies  of  Quadratus  and  Aristides, 
122. 

Apology  of  Justin   Martyr,  first,  148  ; 
second,  163. 

Apology  of  Melito,  170;  of  Miltiades 
and  Claudius  Apollinaris,  170. 

Apology  of  Athenagoras,  176. 

Apology  of  Tertullian,  198. 

Apostles,  33;  35;  44;  49;  81. 

Apostolical    Constitutions  and    Canons, 
286. 

Apostolicals,  1260;  1280;  1286;  1290; 
1300. 

Apostoolians,  1664. 

Appellants,  1717;   1723;  1730. 

Aquila,  119. 

Aquinas.      See  Thomas. 

Arator,  556. 

Arcadius  and  Honorius,  Emp.,  395. 

Arcadius,  Edict  of,  398. 

Archbishop,  581. 

Archdeacons,  400 ;    1072. 

Arianism;  Alius;  318;  321;  325 
327  ;  331  ;  335  ;  337  ;  342  ;  345 
351;  357;  358;  359;  363;  380 
484;  485;  517;  518;  524;  525 
536;  553;  558;  568;  589;  602 
670. 

Aristides,  Apology  of,  122. 

Aristotelian  Philosophy,  439;  510;  529; 
730;  750;  794;   1209. 

Aries,  Councils  of,  314  ;  353. 

Arminians ;     Arminius,     1587;     1600; 
1603;   1609;    1610;   1622;   1627. 

Arnauld,  Antony,  1642;   1655;   1694. 

Arndt,  John,  1615;   1621. 

Arnobius,  307. 


Arnold  of  Brescia,  1134;   1139;   1145; 

1155. 
Arnold,  G.,  1714. 
Arnulph,  991  ;   997. 
Arsenius  Autorianus,  1257. 
Artemon,  Artemonites,  193. 
Articles  of  Torgau,  1530. 
Articles     concerning   Faith    and    Cere- 
monies, 1536. 
Articles  of  Smalcald,  1537. 
Articles   and    Interrogatories,  ex  officio 

mero,  1584. 
Articles,  Lambeth,  1595. 
Articles  of  Perth,  1618  ;    1638. 
Articles   of   Religion,  forty-two,   1553; 

thirty-eight,  1563;  thirty-nine,  1571 ; 

1628;    1772. 
Ascetics,  178. 

Assembly  at  Jerusalem,  49. 
Assembly   of   Divines    at  Westminster, 

1643;*  1654. 
Asylum,  Right  of,  378  ;  398;  431  ;  432  ; 

441  ;  585. 
Athanasian  Creed,  434 ;  485  ;   670. 
Athanasius,  325  ;   326  ;   331  ;  335;  337; 

340;   341;    346;    347;    351;    356; 

362;   363;    367;    373. 
Athenagoras,  175  ;    176. 
Athens,  Church  of,  150. 
Attila,  453. 
Atto,  960. 

Augsburg,  Confession  of,  1530. 
Augsburg,  Peace  of,  1555. 
Augustin,  Bp.  of  Hippo,  390;  391 ;  395; 

400;  405;    407;    412;    419;    420; 

426  ;  428  ;  430. 
Augustin,  Hermits  of,  1256;    1274. 
Augustin,   Abp.    of  Cant.,  596;    598; 

601  ;  602  ;   606  ;   613. 
Aurelian,  Emp.,  270. 
Auto-da- Fe,  1556. 
Avignon,    1308;    1370;    1377;    1378; 

1385;   1398. 
Avitus,  Emp.  W.,  455. 

B. 

Bacon,  Roger,  1294. 

Bacon,  John,  1346. 

Bahrdt,  C.  F.,  1792. 

Baier,  J.  W.,  1695. 

Baius,  1567;  1569;  1579;  1587;  1589. 

Bajazet,  1389j   1396  ;    1402. 

Bangor,  Monks  of,  613. 

Bangorian  Controversy,  1717. 

Baptism,  33;    176;    204;  215;  255; 

256 ;    end  of  3d  cent.  ;    end  of  4th 

cent.;   447;   450;  585;  1652;  1712. 
Baptist  Churches,  1608  ;   1616;     1620; 

1633;     1646;     1689;    1691;     1700; 

1767;    1792;     1795. 


INDEX, 


479 


Baradaeus  (Jacobus),  545. 
Barbarism  of  the  Middle  Ages,  510. 
Barclay,  Robert,  1690. 
Bardesanesof  Edessa,  140;   165;   175. 
Barlaara,  1339  ;   1340;   1341. 
Barnabas,  St.,  40  ;  44;  45  ;  47  ;  48  ;  49; 

50. 
Barnabas,  St.,  (spurious)  Epistle  of,  122. 
Barnabites,  Order  of,  1530. 
Barnes,  Martyrdom  of,  1540. 
Baronius,  Caesar,  1588  ;   1607. 
Barsymas,  451  ;   485. 
Basil,  of  Neocaesarea,  363;  370;  378. 
Basil  I.,  Emp.  E.,  867  ;  871. 
Basil  II.  and  Constantine  IX.,  Emp.  E., 

976. 
Basilicus,  Emp.  E.,  476. 
Basilides,  122. 

Basle,  General  Council  of,  1431  ;   1439. 
Basnage,  Samuel,  1691. 
Basnage,  J.,  1723. 
Baumgarten,  S.  J.,  1757. 
Bauny,  Stephen,  1649. 
Baxter,  Richard,  1641  ;   1662;   1691. 
Bayle,  Peter,   1706. 
Beaton,    Cardinal,   1529;   1539;  1542; 

1546. 
Beausobre,  J.,  1738. 
Beccus  (or  Veccus),  John,  1274;  1282; 
1298. 

Bechmann,  F.,  1703. 

Becket,  Thomas  a,  1162;   1164;  1166; 
1169;   1173- 

Bede,  716;  731  ;  734;  735 

Beghards,  Beguines,  1210;  1245;  1292; 

1341  ;    1349. 
■  Belgic  Confession,  1561;   1582;  1605; 
1618. 

Belisarius,  534;  538;  552. 

Bellarmin,  Cardinal,  1621. 

Benedict,  of  Nursia,  480  ;   529. 

Benedict,  of  Aniane,  817  ;  821. 

Benedictines,  561  ;  615  ;  817. 

Bengel,  J.  A.  1752. 

Benson,  George,  1765. 

Bereans,  1773. 

Berenger  I.,  King  of  Italy,  916. 

Berenger  II.,  King  of  Italy,  945 ;  951  ; 
961. 

Berenger  of  Tours,  1048  ;  1050  ;  1054  ; 
1059;  1078;  1088. 

Berlin,  Conference  at,  1702. 

Bernard,    1113;    1115;    1125j    1145: 
1153. 

Berno,  910;  927. 

Berthold,  1150. 

Bertholdt,  1822. 

Bertling,  E.  A.,  1769. 

Berulle,  1613. 

Beryllus,  240. 


Bessarion,  1438;  1472. 

Beza,  Theodore,  1553;  1556;  1605. 

Bianchi,  1399. 

Biddle,  John,  1662. 

Biel,  Gabriel,  1495. 

Bishops'  Bible,  the,  1568. 

Bishops'  Book,  1537. 

Blair,  Hugh,  1801. 

Blandrata,  G.,  1578;   1590. 

Blastus,   170. 

Blondel,  David,  1655. 

Blount,  Charles,  1693. 

Bochart,  Samuel,  1667. 

Bocher,  Joan,  1549. 

Bockhold,  1534. 

Bodin,  J.  1596. 

Boethius,  480;  510;  525. 

Bogomili,  1103;  1118;  1140;  1143. 

Bbhme,  J.,  1624. 

Boleslas  I.,  of  Bohemia,  938  ;  945. 

Boleslas  II.,  of  Bohemia,  967. 

Boleslas  L,  of  Poland,  1002. 

Bolland,  1643. 

Bona,  Cardinal,  1674. 

Bonaventura,  1245;  1253;  1256;  1260; 

1274;  1482. 
Boniface,  Patr.  of  Rome,  530  ;   532. 
Boniface,  Apostle  of  Germany,  715;  718; 

722;  723;  732;  743;  745;  753;  755. 
Bonner,  1547;  1549;  1553;  1557. 
Bonosus,  388. 
Borgia,  1492. 
Borner,  C.  R,  1753. 
Borromeo,  1583. 
Bossuet,  J.  B.,1670;  1680;  1682;  1688; 

1698  ;  1704. 
Bourdaloue,  Louis,  1704. 
Bourignon,  Antoinette,  1680. 
Boyle  Lectures,  1692. 
Bradwardine,  1325;  1347. 
Braschi,  Cardinal,  1775. 
Braun,  J.,  1710. 
Breithaupt,  J.  J.,  1732. 
Breitinger,  1776. 
Brentz,  John,  1570. 
Bret,  Le,  J.  F.,  1807. 
Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free  Spirit, 

1311. 
Brethren,  Bohemian,  Moravian,  United, 

Church  of  the,  1457;    1467;    1503; 

1548;     1616;     1722;    1727;    1736; 

1792;    1799;     1801. 
Brethren  of  Mercy,  Order  of,  1540. 
Breviarium  Romanum,  1568. 
Brigitta,  1359  ;   1373;    1377. 
Bruno,  Apostle  of  Prussia,  1007. 
Bruno,  Bp.  of  Wurtzburg,  1045. 
Bruno,  founder  of  the  Carthusian  Order, 

1101. 
Bruno,  Giordano,  1600. 


480 


INDEX. 


Britain,  introduction  of  the  Gospel  into, 

204. 
Browne,  Robert,  1630. 
Brucker,  J.,  1770. 
Bryanites.     See  Methodists. 
Bucer,    Martin,     1524;     1543;     1548; 

1551. 
Buddams,  J.  R,  1727;   1728. 
Budna?us,  Simon,  1584. 
Bugenhagen,  John  (Pomeranus),  1525; 

1558. 
Bulgaria,  680;  855;  866;  870;  877;  959. 
Bull,  the  Golden,  1536  ;  against  Luther, 

1520;  In  Coena  Domini,  1536  ;  1568  ; 

1610;  1627;  1770  ;  Unigenitus,  1711  ; 

1717;    1720;     1725;    1728;    1730; 

1739;  1752;  Dominus  ac  Redemptor 

Noster,  1773  ;    Sollicitudo  Omnium, 

1814. 
Bull,  George,  1710. 
Bullinger,  1531  ;  1549  ;  1575. 
Burghers,  1747. 

Burchard,  John  (of  Wesel),  1479. 
Burkard,  Bp.  of  Worms,  1026. 
Burleigh,  Walter,  1337. 
Burmann,  Francis,  1679. 
Burnet,  Gilbert,  1715. 
Burton,  Edward,  1836. 
Bury  Arthur,  1692. 
Buscher,  Statius,  1639. 
Busching,  1793. 
Busenbaum,  H.,  1660. 
Butler,  Joseph,  1753. 
Buxtorf,  1620;   1653;   1664. 


Caecilian,  Bp.  of  Carthage,  311. 

Catenas,  Michael,  1343. 

Cainites,  140. 

Cajetan,  Cardinal,  1518;    1534. 

Calcutta,  Bishopric  of,  1815. 

Caligula,  Emp.,  37. 

Caliphs,  Caliphate,  632;  634;  637;  638; 

639;  640;  644;  655;  661;  682;  711; 

712;  750;  753;  755;  766;  786;  800; 

813;  840;  903;  935;  965;  968;  1027; 

1050;  1054;  1152;  1260. 
Calixtines,  1420;    1433;    1434;   1436; 

1462. 
Calixtus,   George,   1613;    1634;    1639; 

1643;   1645;   1655;    1656. 
Calixtus,  Frederic,  1655;   1701. 
Callenberg,  1728. 
Calmet,  A.  1757. 
Calov,    Abraham,    1645;   1655;   1682; 

1686. 
Calvin,  John,  1532;  1535,  1536;  1539; 

1541;  1549;  1552;  1553;  1554;  1556; 

1559;  1564. 
Camaldulensian  Order,  1016. 
Camisards,  1688;   1700;  1706. 


Campanus,  John,  1532;   1574. 

Campeggio,  1524  ;   1526. 

Campian,  1580;   1581. 

Canisius,  Peter,  1551. 

Canon  of  Scripture,    150;    170;    350; 

494;    1771. 
Canon  Law,  262;   1234. 
Canonici, —  Canons  and  Chapters,  750; 

813;   815;   960;   976;   1059;   1121; 

1126. 
Cantores,  370. 

Capellus,  1624;   1650;   1653. 
Capito  Wolfgang  Fabricius,  1524. 
Capuchins,  Order  of,  1525;   1528. 
Caracalla,  Emp.,  212. 
Carlstadt,  1519;    1524;   1528;    1541. 
Carmelites,  Order  of,  1150;  1238;  1245; 

1274. 
Caroline  Books,  790. 
Carpocrates,  145. 
Carpzov,  J.  B.  (the  elder),  1657. 
Carpzov,  J.  B.  (the  younger),  1699. 
Carpzov,  J.  G.,  1767. 
Cartesian  Philosophy,  1650. 
Carthusians,  1081. 
Cartwright,  1570;   1589. 
Cams,  Emp.,  282. 
Casino,  Mount,  Monastery  of,  529. 
Cassander,  George,  1566. 
Cassel,  Conference  at,  1661. 
Cassian,  395;   411;  425;  434;  435. 
Cassiodorus,  493  ;  536  ;  539  ;  563. 
Castellio,  1551  ;   1563. 
Cataphrygians.    See  Montanists. 
Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  1566. 
Catechisms,  Assembly's,  1643. 
Cathari,  1179. 
Catharine  of  Sienna,  1377. 
Catholic  (or  Holy)  Alliance,  1538. 
Catholic  League,  1609;  1620;  1631. 
Catholics,  Poor,  Order  of,  1201. 
Cave,  William,  1713. 
Ceillier,  Le,  1761. 
Celestines,  Order  of,  1294. 
Celibacy,  178;   270;   378;   388. 
Celibacy  of  the  Clergy,  325;  388  ;  450 

504;  538;    550;    598;    649;    680 

692;   721;   868;    end  of    9th  cent. 

952;   969;  1000;  1073;  1081;  1101 

1538;    1549;    1831.      See  also  Mar 

riage  of  the  Clergy. 
Celidonius,  444. 
Celsus,  140. 
Cerinthus,  96. 
Chamier,  Daniel,  1621. 
Chandler,  Edward,  1 750. 
Chandler,  Samuel,  1766. 
Chapters  of  Clergy.     See  Canonici. 
Charisius,  499. 
Charlemagne,    768;     771;    778;    782 

787;  790;  794;  803;   813. 


INDEX. 


481 


Charles  the  Bald,  869  ;  870  ;  871  ;  877. 

Charles  the  Fat,  884. 

Charles  IV.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1347. 

Charles  V.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1519;  1523; 
1556;   1558. 

Charles  VI.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1711. 

Charles  VII.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1742. 

Chartophylaces,  end  of  7th  cent. 

Chateaubriand,  F.  A.,  1802. 

Chatel,  Abbe,  1831. 

Chemnitz,  Martin,  1565;   1586. 

Cheregati,  1522. 

Chillingworth,  William,  1644. 

Christo  Sacrum,  1797  ;   1802. 

Christopher,  Emp.  E.,  919. 

Chrodegang,  750. 

Chrysostom,  370;  380  ;  386  ;  398  ;  401  ; 
403;   404;  407. 

Chubb,  Thomas,  1747. 

Church,  constitution  and  government  of 
the,  98;   100;   155;   176;   188;  214; 
215  ;  240  ;    244  ;    252  ;      end    of  3d 
century  ;   323  ;  325  ;  331  ;  343  ;  347 
350;    383;    400;    516;    518;    528 
534 ;    536  ;    541  ;    545  ;    549  ;    557 
604  ;    635  ;    678  ;    692  ;    767  ;   1046 

Church,  discipline  of  the,  81  ;  98  ;  155 
180;  215;  222;  249;  255;  256 
end  of  3d.  cent.  ;  328  ;  450 ;  469 
506;  517;  534;  538;  539;  692 
end  of  7th  cent.  ;  741  ;  747;  813 
1050;  1081;  1086;  1150;  1164 
1215;  1275. 

Church,  doctrine  and  teaching  of  the,  35  ; 
129;  155;  180;  end  of  2d  cent.; 
215;  240;  244;  252;  254;  end  of 
3d  cent.  ;  350 ;  407  ;  439  ;  442  ;  450 ; 
457;  end  of  5th  cent.;  510;  550; 
650  ;  732  ;  750  ;  877  ;  end  of  9th 
cent.;  1046;  1072;  1098;  1129; 
1150:  1229;  1260;  1264;  1286; 
1299;  1333;  end  of  14th  cent.; 
1420;  end  of  15th  cent.;  1659; 
1787;   1830. 

Church,  ministers  of  the,  end  of  3d  cent.  ; 
323;  326;  370;  390;  400;  457; 
472  ;  489  ;  529  ;  541  ;  550  ;  558  ; 
572  ;  581  ;  585  ;  589  ;  596  ;  604  ; 
675;  end  of  7th  cent.  ;  771  ;  794; 
844;   850;  950;  969;    1046;   1072. 

Church,  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the,  33  ; 
42;    100;    end   of  2d   cent.;    215; 
222  ;    240 ;    256  ;  end  of  3d  cent.  ; 
325  ;  343  ;    350  ;    370  ;    end    of  4th 
cent.  ;  441  ;    447  ;    450  ;   end  of  5th 
cent.;  549;    561;    572;  598;   611 
650;    663;    675;    787;   800;  1050 
1060;     1081;     1130;     1140;     1325 
1351. 

Church    and    State,     320;    350;    655; 


750;  759;  813;  828;  850;  end  of 
9th  cent.  ;  960 ;  965;  969;  1054 
1059;  1066;  1072;  1076;  1087 
1094;  1097;  1106;  1139;  1161 
1162;  1164;  1302;  1307;  1613 
1626;     1700;    1 708  ;:  1721;    1725. 

Church  property,  425  ;  467  ;  536  ;  549  ; 
557  ;   572  ;    585  ;     655  ;    675  ;    740  ; 
787;  791;   813;  850;    855;  end  of 
9th    cent.;  969;  999;   1054;   1066 
1073;    1143;     1265;    1279;    1292 
1296;    1570;    1605;    1725;     1790 
1792;     1833. 

Churches  of  the  East  and  West,  disputes 
between,  345  ;  347  ;  407  ;  484 ;  544 
553;  589;  653;  768;  813;  867 
891  ;  950;  1046  ;  1053  ;  1054;  1098 
1199;  1230;  1274;  1339;  1367 
1438;    1556;     1576;     1621;     1634 

Churches,    Evangelical    and    Reformed 
1612;    1615;     1631;     1661;    1702 
1707;     1719;     1720;    1724;    1736 
1801;    1817;     1823. 

Chytrasus,  David,  1600. 

Circumcelliones,  342. 

Circumcision,  question  concerning,  49. 

Cistercians,  1 098  ;   1113. 

Civil  War,  English,  1642;  1643  ;  1644  ; 
1645;    1646;   1647;   1650. 

Clarendon,  Constitutions  of,  1164;  1166. 

Clarke,  Samuel,  1712  ;    1728. 

Claude,  of  Turin,  831  ;  840. 

Claudian,  394. 

Claudius,  Felix,  53. 

Claudius  (Tiberius),  Emp.,  41. 

Claudius  (M.  Aurelius),  Emp.,  268. 

Claudius,  poet,  442. 

Clayton,  Robert,  1758. 

Clement  of  Rome,  Epistle  of,  98  ;  death 
of,  about  100. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  188  ;  193  ;  202  ; 
218. 

Clement  VII.,  Pope,  1378. 

Clergy.      See  Ministers  of  the  Church. 

Clerici  Regulares  S.  Majoli,  1543. 

Clericus,  J.,  1736. 

Clovis,  481 ;  486  ;  496  ;  504  ;  507  ;  511. 

Clugny,  Monastery  of,  910;   927;  998. 

Cocceius,  John,  Cocceian   Controversy, 
1658;   1669;   1624. 

Ccelestius,  404;   41 1  ;  417. 

Collegia  Philobiblica,  1689. 

Collegiants,  1630. 

Colin,  1833. 

Colossians,  Epistle  to  the,  62. 

Columba,  561. 

Columban,  604 ;   606;   615. 

Commission,  Court  of  High,  1559. 

Commission  of  Examinations,  1791. 

Committee  of  Triers,  1 654. 


482 


INDEX. 


Commodian,  poet,  270. 
Commodus,  Emp.,  180. 
Common  Prayer,  English  Book  of,  1 545 
1548;     1549;     1550;     1551;    1552 
1553;    1555;     1560;    1604;     1633 
1661;     1689;    1712;     1731. 
Communion.      See  Lord's  Supper. 
Complutensian  Bible,  1520. 
Conclave,  1274;   1276. 
Concord,  Form  of,  1580. 
Concordat  of  Worms,   1122;   of  Vienna, 
1447;    of    Francis   and    Leo,    1516; 
Papal,    with    Spain,     1753 ;     French, 
1801;   1817;    Bavarian,   1817;    Ne- 
apolitan,    1818;       Prussian,      1821  ; 
Hanoverian,  1824;   of  the  province  of 
the  Upper  Rhine,  1827. 
Confession,  private,  457  ;   1215. 
Confession,  Belgic,  1561  ;   1582;   1605; 

1618. 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  1530. 
Confession,  Tetvapolitan,  1530. 
Confession,  Helvetic,  first,  1536;  second, 

1566. 
Confession  des    Eglises    Reformees     de 

France,  1559. 
Confession  of  the     Mennonites,    1580; 

1755. 
Confession,  Arminian,  1622. 
Confession,    Orthodox,     of    the    Greek 

Church,  1643. 
Confession,  Baptist,  1646. 
Confession,  Westminster,  1647. 
Confession  of  Calvinistic  Baptists,  1689. 
Congregatio  de  Auxiliis,  1598. 
Congregatio  de  Propaganda  Fide,  1622. 
Congregational      Union      of     Scotland, 

1812. 
Congregationalists.     See  Independents. 
Conrad  I.,  Emp.  Ger.,  912. 
Conrad  II.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1024  ;   1032. 
Conrad  III.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1138. 
Conrad  IV.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1250. 
Conrad  of  Marpurg,  1232. 
Consensus  Tigurinus.  1549. 
Consensus       Pastorum       Genevensium, 

1551  ;    1554. 
Consensus  Dresdensis,  1571. 
Consensus     Repetitus    Fidei   Vere   Lu- 
therans, 1655. 
Consent  of  Faith  at  Sendomir,  1568. 
Constance,  Council  of,  1414. 
Constans  and  Constantine  II.,  Emp.  W., 

337. 
Constans  II.,  Emp.  E.  641. 
Constantine,    conversion    of,    311  ;    sole 
emperor,  323 ;  baptism  and  death  of, 
337. 
Constantine  II.  and  Constans,  Emp.  W. 

337. 
Constantine  III.,  Emp.  E.,  641. 


Constantine  IV.  (Pogonatus),  Emp.  E., 

668;  680. 
Constantine V.  (Copronymus\  Emp.  E., 

741. 
Constantine  VI.,  Emp.  E.,  780. 
Constantine  VII.,     (Porphyrogenitus), 

Emp.  E.,  912;  945. 
Constantine  VIII.,  Emp.  E.,919. 
Constantine  IX.,  Emp.  E.,  1025. 
Constantine  X.    (Monomachus),   Emp. 

E.,  1042 
Constantine    XI.    (Ducas),    Emp.    E., 

1059. 
Constantine  XII.  ( Palaeologus),    Emp. 

E.,  1448. 
Constantinople,    first    Council    of,  381  ; 

second,  553  ;  third,  680. 
Constantius  and  Galerian,  Emp.,  305. 
Constantius,  Emp.  E.,  337. 
Constitutionists,  1717. 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  1 1 64  ;  1 166. 
Constitutum,  553. 

Consubstantiation.       See    Lord's    Sup- 
per. 
Contareni,  Cardinal,  1542. 
Contraremonstrants,  1610;  1611  ;  1613  ; 

1618. 
Controversies,  early,  81 ;   155  ;   167. 
Conventicle   Act,   first,    1664;    second, 

1670. 
Convocation,  English,  1661. 
Convulsionn  aires,  1730. 
Corbinian,  730. 
Corinthians,  First  Epistle  to  the,  56  ; 

Second  Epistle,  58. 
Cornelius,  conversion  of,  41. 
Corporation  Act,  1661  ;   1670. 
Corpus  Juris  Civilis  Romana?,  558. 
Corpus     Domini,    Festival     of,    1264; 

1311. 
Corpus  Doctrinae   Misnicum  or  Philip- 

picum,  1558. 
Correspondents,  596. 
Corruption  of  Christianity,    early,    129. 
Cosmas  Indicopleustes,  533. 
Cosmas  of  Constantinople,  1143. 
Cotta,  J.  F.,  1779. 
Councils,  164;   196;  204;   262;  end  of 

3d  cent.  ;  end  of  4th  cent.  ;  544;  end 

of  7th  cent.  ;   743;   750;   1431. 
Councils,  General,    I.,  325;    II..  381  ; 
III.,  431.  ;  IV.,  451  ;  V.,  553  ;  VI., 

680;   VII.,  787. 
Courayer  Le,  1723;   1728. 
Covenant,  1638. 
Coverdale's  Bible,  1535. 
Cramer,  J.  A.,  1788. 
Cranmer,  Abp.    of    Canterbury,    1533  ; 
1539;    1542;     1543;     1548;    1549; 
1552;     1553;     1554;     1555;     1556. 
Cranmer's  Bible,  1539. 


[NDEX. 


483 


Creeds,  49 ;  150 ;  325  ;  351  ;  358  ;  359 

380;  434;   589;  796. 
Crell,  John,  1633. 
Crell,  Samuel,  1747. 
Crescens,  161. 
Crusades,    999;     1073;     1094;     1095 

1096;    1099;     1147;     1187;    1190 

1200;    1202;    1215;     1217;    1225 

1228;     1248;    1270;     1274;    1304 

1456;    1458;    1487. 
Crusius,  C.  A.,  1775. 
Crypto- Calvinistic    Controversy,    1558; 

1570; 1574; 1576; 1580; 1587; 1592. 
Cudworth,  Ralph,  1688. 
Cumanus  and  Felix,  48. 
Curcellams,  1659. 
Cuspius  Fadus,  44. 
Cyprian  of  Carthage,   248 ;  250 ;   251  ; 

254;  256;   257;   258. 
Cyprian,  E.  S.,  1745. 
Cyriacus,  596. 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  350;   386. 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  428  ;  430  ;  445. 
Cyril,  Apostle  of  the  Slavi,  855  ;  863  ; 

868. 
Cyril  Lucaris,  1621  ;   1634;   1638 
Cyrus,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  633. 

D. 

Daille,  J.,  1670. 

D'Ailly,  Peter,  1381;  1412;  1414; 
1420;   1425. 

D'Alembert,  1783. 

Damasus,  366. 

Damian  (of  Alexandria),  Damianites, 
565. 

Damian,  Peter,  1072. 

Dancers,  1374. 

Danov,  E.  J.,  1782. 

Daunhauer,  J.,  1661. 

Danzer,  J.,  1796. 

David  of  Dinanto,  1 200. 

Davidis,  1578. 

Deacons,  34. 

Decius,  Emp.,  24  9. 

Declaration  of  Faith  and  Order  (Con- 
gregational), 1658  ;  1833. 

Decretals,  525 ;  635;  794;  834;  858; 
864;  871  ;   1073. 

De  Dominis,  Marcus  Antonius,  1616; 
1622. 

Defensores,  503. 

Delft,  Conference  at,  1613. 

Demetrius,  Bp.  of  Alexandria,  215. 

Demophilus,  379. 

Dereser,  Thadd.,  1827. 

Derham,  William,  1735. 

Desiclerius,  756;   771. 

Devay,  Matthias,  1549. 

Deyling,  S.,  1755. 

Diderot,  1784. 


Didius  Julianus,  Emp.,  192. 

Didymus  of  Alexandria,  375  ;  396. 

Diocletian,  Emp.,  284. 

Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  395. 

Dionysius  of  Corinth,   Epistles  of,  163. 

Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  232  ;  261  ; 
262. 

Dionysius  the  Less  (Canons  and  Decre- 
tals), 525  ;  545  ;  635. 

Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  pretended 
writings  of,  533  ;  606;  662;  817; 
827  ;   840  ;   845  ;  end  of  9th  century. 

Dioscurus,  444 ;  446;   448;  451. 

Dippel,  J.  C,  1734. 

Directory,  the,  1643;   1645. 

Dissenting  Congregations  in  England 
and  Wales,  number  of,  1716;  1776; 
1812. 

Dissidents,  Polish,  1731  ;   1767. 

Docetse,  96. 

Doddridge,  Philip,  1751. 

Dodwell,  Henry,  1711. 

Doederlein,  J.  C,  1792. 

Dolcino,  1300;   1304. 

Dominicans,  1215;  1220;  1230;  1231  ; 
1256;  1260;  1274;  1350;  1494; 
1517;  1615;  1631  ;  1704. 

Dominus  ac  Redemptor  noster,  Bull  en- 
titled, 1773. 

Domitian,  Emp.,  81. 

Donation  of  Constantine,  forged,  794. 

Donatists,  311  ;  313;  314;  316;  317; 
321;  330;  342;  362;  390;  405; 
411  ;   602. 

Dorsch,  J.  G.,  1659. 

Dort,  Synod  of,  1618. 

Douay  Version,  1609. 

Dracontius,  poet,  442. 

Driessen,  A.,  1748. 

Druthmar,  844 ;  850. 

Dublin,  Synod  of,  1634. 

Duchobortzi,  1745. 

Dudith,  A.,  1589. 

Dunkers,  1724. 

Dunstan,  950  ;   962  ;   969  ;   988. 

Duperron,  J.  D.,  1618. 

Durand,  William,  1276;  (ob.  1296). 

Durand,  William  (de  St.  Pourcain), 
1333. 

Durand,  Urs.,  1770. 

Dury,  John,  1680. 

Dzengis  Khan  1206;   1221. 

E. 

Easter,  time  of.  See  Paschal  Controversy. 

Ebbo,  822  ;  833 ;  834. 

Eberhard,  J.,  1809. 

Ebionites,  66. 

Eclectic  Philosophy,  204  ;   232. 

Eck,  1519;  1520;  1543. 

Edelmann,  J.  C,  1767. 


484 


INDEX. 


Edessa,  Church  at,  81. 

Edict   of  Adrian,    125;    of   Antoninus 

Pius,  158. 
Edict  of  Decius,  249. 
Edict  of  Gallienus,  259. 
Edicts  of  Galerius,  304. 
Edict  of  Toleration,  by  Constantine  and 

Licinius,  312. 
Edict  of  Milan,  313. 
Edict  against  the  Manichees,  372. 
Edict  of  Arcadius,  398. 
Edict  of   Worms,    1521;    1522;   1524; 

1529. 
Edict  of  Nantes,  1597  ;   1685. 
Edict  of  Restitution,  1629  ;    1648. 
Edict  of  Toleration,  by  the  Emp.  Joseph, 

1781. 
Edict,  Religious  (Prussian),  1788. 
Egede,  John,  1721. 
Eickhorn,  J.  G.,  1827. 
Elcesaites,  104. 
Elipandus,  787. 

Elliot,  John,  1621  ;    1658;    1690, 
Eisner,  J.,  1750. 
Elvira,  Council  of,  305. 
Emlyn,  Thomas,  1741. 
Emmeran,  651. 

Ems,  Congress  at,  1786;  1787. 
Emser,  Jerome,  1527. 
Encratites,  165. 
Engagement,  the,  1649. 
Ennodius,  503  ;  521. 
Ephesians,  Epistle  to  the,  61. 
Ephesus,  Council  of,  Third  General,  431. 
Ephesus,    Council    of  (Synod  of    Rob- 
bers), 449. 
Ephraim  the  Syrian,  378. 
Epiphanius,  367  ;  375  ;  380  ;  402  ;  403. 
Episcopius,  Simon,  1609;    1622;   1644. 
Erasmus,    1467;     1509;    1516;    1517; 

1520;   1521;   1523;    1524;    1536. 
Erimbert,  855. 
Ernesti,  J.  A.,  1760;   1781. 
Erpenius,  1624. 
Et  castera  oath,  1640. 
Eucharist.      See  Lord's  Supper. 
Eucherius,  450. 
Eudocia,  Emp.  E.,  1067. 
Eudon  de  Stella,  1145. 
Eudoxius,  358. 
Eu genius,  Usurper,  392. 
Eunomius,  358. 
Eusebius  of  Cassarea,  307  ;  310;   314; 

321  ;   325  ;   331  ;  340. 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  325;  337;  339. 
Eusebius,  Bp.  of  Emisa,  360. 
Eustathians;  Eustathius,  331  ;   355. 
Eutyches;  Eutychians,  446;  448;  449; 

451  ;   655.      See  also  Monophysites. 
Eutychius  of  Alexandria,  950. 
Evangelical  Union,  1608;   1621. 


Ewald,  723. 

Examinations,  Commission  of,  1791. 

Exposition  of  the  Faith,  638  ;  648. 


Faber  of  Constance,  1523. 

Fabricius,  J.,  1728. 

Fabricius,  J.  A.,  1736. 

Facundus,  548. 

Fagius,  Paul,  1548  ;   1550. 

Familists,  1571  ;    1645.   £ 

Farel,    William,    1524;  '1528;     1532; 

1539;    1565. 
Fasting;    Fasts,  111;   222;   388. 
Faustus  (Manichee),  400. 
Faustus,  Bp.    of   Rhegium,  454  ;  469 ; 

475;   484. 
Feast  of  All  Souls,  998. 
Feasts  of  Charity,  35  ;   215. 
Febronius.      See  Hontheim. 
Fecht,  J.,  1716. 
Felbiger,  1788. 

Felix,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  483  ;   484. 
Felix  of  Urgella,  787  ;  792  ;   793  ;  794; 

799. 
Fenelon,   F.   de   Salignac  de  la  Motte, 

1685;   1695;   1698;   1699. 
Ferdinand  I.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1556  ;    1558. 
Ferdinand  II.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1619;  1620. 
Ferdinand  III.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1637. 
Ferrar,  Nicholas,  1637. 
Festivals,  early  ;  end  of  2d,  3d,  and  4th 

centuries. 
Festival  of  the  Nativity,  386. 
Festival  of  the  Purification,  526. 
Festival  of  All   Martyrs   (All   Saints), 

611. 
Festival  of  Orthodoxy,  842. 
Festival  of  Corpus  Domini,  1264;  1311. 
Festival    of  the    Holy   Trinity,    1320 ; 

1405. 
Festival  of  the  Spear  and  Nails,  1354. 
Festival  of  the  Visitation,  1389. 
Festival  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 

1431. 
Festival  of  the  Transfiguration,  1456. 
Festival  of  the  Seven  Joys  of  the  Virgin 

Mary,  1745. 
Festus,  55. 
Feuerborn,  J.,  1656. 
Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  1645. 
Filioque,  589  ;   796  ;   809. 
Firmilian,  232  ;   269. 
Fisher,  Bp.  of  Rochester,  1534;  1535. 
Fisher,  Samuel,  1664. 
Fitzralph,  Richard,  1356. 
Five  Mile  Act,  1665. 
Flacian  Controversy,  1581;    1605. 
Flaeius,  1561  ;    1575. 
Flagellants,  1334;    1341;    1349;    1414; 

1419. 


INDEX. 


485 


Flatt,  J.  F.,  1822, 

Flechier,  E.,  1710. 

Fleury,  Claude,  1723. 

Fleury,  Cardinal,  1743. 

Flodoard  of  Rheims,  966. 

Florinus,  170. 

Florus  Magister,  853. 

Fontanini,  J.,  1736. 

Fontevraud,  Order  of,  1106. 

Fordyce,  James,  1796. 

Form  of  the  Faith,  648. 

Form  of  Concord,  1 580. 

Formula  Consensus  Helvetici,  1675. 

Fox,  George,  1647;  1649;  1691. 

Francis,  St.      See  Franciscans. 

Francis,  St. ,  Hermits  of.  See  Franciscans 

Francis  of  Paris,  1730. 

Franciscans,  1207;  1219;  1223;   1226 

1231;     1245;     1249;     1256;    1274 

1279;     1282;     1294;     1311;    1323 

1324;    1340;     1341;     1350;    1434 

1474;    1525;     1625;    1708. 
Francis,  I.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1741. 
Francis  II.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1792;   1804. 
Franke,   A.    H.,    1689;    1694;    1700; 

1704;  1727. 
Frankfort  Recess,  1558. 
Franks,  430;  486  ;  496;  504;  507;  511 ; 

527;  534;  534;  561;  771. 
Franz,  Wolf.,  1628. 
Fratres   Militia?    Christi,    or    Gladiferi, 

1202. 
Fratres  Communis  Vita?,  1375. 
Fratricelli,  1341. 
Frederic  I.,  Emp.  Ger.,   1152  ;     1154  ; 

1155;     1157;    1158;    1160;     1165; 

1174;     1189. 
Frederic  II.,  Emp.  Ger.,   1218;    1239; 

1241;    1244;  1245. 
Frederic  III.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1440. 
Frederic  the  Wise,   Elector   of  Saxony, 

1520;   1525. 
Free  Spirit,  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the, 

1311. 
Fresenius,  J.  P.,  1761. 
Frey,  J.  L.,  1759. 

Friars  Minor,  Tertiary.  See  Franciscans. 
Friends,  Society  of,  1649;  1664;  1666; 

1675;     1676;     1677;     1682;     1689; 

1691;     1693;     1695;    1790;    1829. 
Fulbert,  1007  ;   1028. 
Fulgentius  Ferrandus,  549. 
Funk,  J.,  1555  ;   1556. 


Gabler,  1826. 

Galatians,  Epistle  to  the,  52. 

Galba,  Emp.,  68. 

Galenists,  1664. 

Galerius  and  Maximian,  Emp.,  306. 

Gallienus,  Emp.,  259. 


I   I 


Gallus,  Emp.,  251. 

Gallus  (St.  Gall.),  604;   606. 

Gangra,  Council  of,  365. 

Gardiner,  1547  ;     1548  ;     1550  ;    1553  ; 

1555. 
Gaston,  1095. 
Geddes,  Alex.,  1802. 
Geier,  Martin,  1680. 
Gelasius  of  Cyzicum,  478. 
Gelasius,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  494 ;  496. 
Geneva  Bible,  1560. 
Gennadius,  491  ;   493. 
Genseric,  455. 
Gentilis,  J.  Valentin,  1566. 
George  of  Trapezond,  1486. 
Georgius  Acropolita  Logothetes,  1282. 
Gerard  Lubbert,  1580. 
Gerber,  1793. 

Gerbert,  991  ;   997  ;   999  ;    1003. 
Gerdes,  D.,  1762. 
Gerhard,  J.,  1610  ;    1615;    1637. 
Germanus  and  Lupus,  442. 
Gerson,  1377;  1395;  1406;  1412;  1420; 

1429. 
Gessius  Florus,  65. 
Ghibelines,  1155;    1198. 
Gichtel,  J.  G.,  1710. 
Gilbert  of  Poitiers,  1154. 
Gladiferi,  1202;    1230;   1237. 
Glassites,  1730. 

Glassius,  Salomon,  1645;    1656. 
Glycerius,  Emp.  W.,  473. 
Gnosticism,  Gnostics,  49;  55;  81  ;   97; 

104;  122;  140;  145;  150;  156;  163; 

198;  215;  390. 
Goar,  604. 

Gomarus,  1603  ;   1609;    1641. 
Gordian,  Emp.,  238. 
Gorm,  934. 
Gothofred,  1208. 
Goths,  309;   370. 
Gottschalk,  829  ;   847  ;  848  ;  853  ;  855  ; 

869. 
Gbtze,  J.  M.,  1786. 
Gousset,  J.,  1704. 
Grabe,  J.  E.,  1711. 
Gratiae  Exspectativa?,  1215. 
Gratian,  1151  ;   1158. 
Great  Bible,  1539. 
Gregory      Thaumaturgus,     232;     235; 

239;   240;   270. 
Gregory    Nazianzen,   356;    361;    363; 

372;  376;  379;  380;  389. 
Gregory  Nyssen,  363;  372;  376;  378; 

381  ;  395. 
Gregory  of  Tours,  595. 
Gregory  I.,   or   the  Great,    590;    591  ; 

596;    598;   602;   604. 
Gregory  of  Utrecht,  756. 
Gregory  VII.,  Pope.     See  Hildebrand. 
Gregory  of  Valentia,  1603. 

3 


486 


INDEX. 


Gretser,  J.,  1624. 

Gribaldi,  Matthew,  1564. 

Griesbach,  J.  J.,  1812. 

Grimoaid,  662 ,   670. 

Grindal,  1577  ;   1581. 

Groot,  Gerard,  1375. 

Grostete  (Capito),  Robert,  235;  1253. 

Grotius,  H.,  1641  ;  1645. 

Guelphs,  1155;  1198. 

Guibert  of  Nogent,  1260. 

Guiscard,  Robert,  1059. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  1605. 

Gurtler,  N.,  1712. 

Gustavus  Vasa,  1523. 

Guyon,  Madame,  1695;  1717. 

Gylas,  945. 

H. 

Hague,  Conferences  at  the,  1610  ;  1823; 

Haimo,  840  ;   853. 

Hakon,  938. 

Hall,  Joseph,  Bp.  of  Norwich,  1656. 

Halle,     University    of,    1694;    Orphan 

House  at,  1698. 
Haller,  1528. 

Hamburg,  Conference  at,  1526. 
Hamel,  1587. 
Hamilton,  Patrick,  1528. 
Hammond,  Henry,  1652;   1660. 
Hampton  Court,  Conference  at,  1604. 
Hanseatic  League,  1250. 
Hanstein,  1821. 
Harald,  King  of  Denmark,  945  ;  972  ; 

975;   991. 
Harduin,  J.,  1728. 
Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the,  62  or  63. 
Hegesippus,  175. 
Heidegger,  J.  H.,  1697. 
Heidelberg     Catechism,    1562;     1582; 

1605;   1618. 
Heineccius,  J.  G.,  1741. 
Helena,  326. 
Heliodorus,  394. 
Heliogabalus,  Emp.,218. 
Helvetic  Confession,  1536;   1566. 
Helvetius,  1771. 
Helvidius,  388. 
Helvius  Pertinax,  Emp.,  192. 
Henke,  H.  P.  C,  1809. 
Henoticon,  482;  485;  end  of  5th  cent.  ; 

518. 
Henricians,  1124;   1147. 
Henry  of  Lausanne,  1116;  1124;  1134. 
Henry  I.  (the  Fowler),  Emp.  Ger,  919. 
Henry  II.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1002. 
Henry  III-,  Emp.  Ger.,  1039. 
Henry  IV.,  Emp.   Ger.,   1056;   1076; 

1077;   1078;   1080;  1084. 
Henry  V.,   Emp.    Ger.,    1106;    1110; 

1111  ;   1112;   1116;    1118. 
Henry  VI.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1190. 


Henry  VII.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1303. 
Henry  VIII.,  King  of  England,  1509 
1521;     1522;    1527;    1529;    1530 
1533;     1534;     1535;     1536;    1539 
1540;     1542;    1547. 
Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  1539. 
Heraclas,  231. 

Heracleon  of  Alexandria,  140. 
Heracleonas,  Emp.  E.,  641 . 
Heraclius,    Emp.  E.,    610;  625;   638. 
Herbert,  Lord,  1648. 
Herder,  J.  G.,  1803. 
Hermann,  Abp.  of  Cologne,  1539  ;  1543 ; 

1544;   1545;   1546;    1552. 
Hermas,  145. 

Hermes  Trismegistus,  122. 
Hermits  of  Augustin.      See  Augustin. 
Hermits  of  St.   Francis.      See   Francis- 
cans. 
Hermogenes,  203. 

Herod    Agrippa,   king  of  Galilee,   37  ; 
king  of  all  Palestine,  41 ;  his  death,  44. 
Hervaeus  Natalis,  1323. 
Heshusius,  1588. 
Heumann,  C.  A.,  1764. 
Hicks,  Elias,  1829. 
Hierarchical  System,  rise  of  the,  204. 
Hierax,  296. 
Hierocles,  300. 

High  Commission,  Court  of,  1559. 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  368. 
Hilary  the  Deacon,  384. 
Hilary  of  Aries,  429  ;  449. 
Hilary,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  461  ;  463  ; 

465. 
Hildebrand,  1054;  1073;  1077;   1078; 

1080;    1084;    1085. 
Hilduin,  840. 
Hincmar  of  Rheims,    848  ;  853 ;  859  ; 

862;   864;  869;  870;   871;   882. 
Hippolytus,  220,  250. 
Hirschau,  Congregation  of,  1069. 
Hoadley,  Benjamin,  1761. 
Hobbes,  Thomas,  1678. 
Hoe,  Matthew,  1645. 
Hoepper,  Henry,  1642. 
Hohenstaufen,  House    of,  1138;   1155; 

1198;    1215;   1253;    1268. 
Holy  Ghost,  Procession  of  the,  1098. 
Holy  Legislative  Synod,  1721, 
Homiliarium,  794. 
Homilies,  Book  of,  1547;   1563. 
Homceousians.      See  Arianism. 
Homunciones,  346. 
Honorius  of  Autun,  1130. 
Hontheim    von,     J.    N.,    1763;     1778; 

1790. 
Hooker,  Richard,  1585. 
Hoornbeck,  J.,  1668. 
Horneius,  Conrad,  1643. 
Hosius,  321  ;   357  ;   361. 


INDEX. 


487 


Hospitalers  of  St.   John  of  Jerusalem, 

1099;    1291;     1309;    1509;     1523; 

1530. 
Hottinger,  J.  H.,  1667. 
Huet,  P.  D.,  1721. 
Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  1140. 
Hugh  of  St.  Cher,  1263. 
Huguenots,   1560;  1562;   1572;  1575. 

See  also  Wars  in  France. 
Hiilsemann,  J.,  1645;    1661. 
Humbert,  Cardinal,  1059  ;   1065. 
Humbert  of  Romans,  1 260. 
Hume,  David,  1776. 
Hunnius,  iEgidius,  1603. 
Hunnius,  Nicholas,  1643. 
Huss,  John,  1373  ;  1398  ;   1400  ;  1402  ; 

1409;   1410;   1412;    1413;    1414. 
Hussites,  the,  War  of,  1417;  1420;  1424; 

1433. 
Hutchinson,  Hutchinsonians,  1727;  1749. 
Hutten,  1521. 
Hutter,  Leonard,  1616. 
Hydroparastata?,  165. 
Hyperius,  1564. 
Hypsistarians,  310. 

I. 

Ibas,  Bp.  of  Edessa,  457. 

Iberia,  328 ;  350. 

Iconoclasts,  Iconomachi.      See  Images. 

Ignatius,    death    of,     107     (al.    116); 

Epistles  of,  ib. 
Ignatius,    Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 

858  ;  863;  867;  878.  " 
Ildefonsus,  661. 
Images,  use  of,  598  ;  606  ;  692  ;  726 

730;  741;  754;  775;  778;  784;  786 

787;  790;  794;  800;  814;  815;  820 

824;  825;  830;  831;  842;  843;  878 

1525;   1548;   1781. 
Immaculate  Conception,  Feast  of,  1431. 
In  Coena,  Domini,  Bull  entitled,  1536; 

1568;    1610;    1627;   1770. 
Inas,  728. 
Incense,  370. 
Independents,  1581 ;  1610;  1621 ;  1645; 

1658;    1691;   1797;   1812;    1833. 
Index  Tridentinus,  1595. 
Indulgences,  1150;  1164;  1275;  1299; 

1343; 1412; 1517; 1518; 1519; 1532. 
Infralapsarians,  1590. 
Inquisition,  1206;   1229;  1232;  1480; 

1526;  1556:   }565;   1623;   1814. 
Institution  of  a  Christian  Man,  1537. 
Intercessio  Episcoporum,  323. 
Interim   of  Ratisbon,  1541  ;  of  Augs- 
burg, 1548  ;  of  Leipsic,  1548  ;  1552. 
Investiture,   682  ;    967  ;     1059  ;    1075  ; 

1097;    1106;    1107;    1111;    1112; 

1115;    1119;    1122. 
Ireneeus,  176;   180;   196;  202. 


Irene,  775;  780;  784;   797;  802. 
Irving,     Edward;     Irvingites ;     1826; 

1833;   1834. 
Isaac  Comnenus,  Emp.  E.,  1057. 
Isaac  Angelus,  Emp.  E.,  1185. 
Isaac  and  Alexius  IV.,  Emp.  E.,  1204. 
Isidore  (Gnostic),  122. 
Isidore  of  Pelusium,  449. 
Isidore  of  Seville,  602  ;  633  ;  635. 
Ittig,  Thomas,  1710. 
Ivo,  1115. 


Jablonski,  D.  E.,  1741. 

Jablonski,  P.  E.,  1757. 

Jacobellus  de  Misa,  1414. 

Jacobites,  545  ;   1837. 

Jacobus  Baradaeus,  545. 

Jagello,  1385. 

Jager,  J.  W.s  1720. 

Jahn,  J.,  1817. 

James  St.,  the  Elder,  43. 

James  St.,  the  Just,  Epistle  of,  61  ; 
death  of,  62. 

Jansenist  Controversy,  1567  ;  1569  ; 
1579;  1587;  1597;  1607;  1611; 
1638;  1640;  1642;  1650;  1655; 
1665;  1668;  1679;  1705;  1708; 
1711;  1717;  1720;  1723;  1728; 
1730;    1752. 

Jansenius  Cornelius,  1638. 

Jerome,  363  ;  375  ;  378  ;  380  ;  386  ; 
390;  394;  404;  412;   426. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  1400;  1402;  1409; 
1412;   1414;   1416. 

Jerome  Savoranola,  1498. 

Jerusalem,  Assembly  at,  49  (al.  52) 
Destruction  of,  70  (al.  72). 

Jesuits,  1540 ;  1541 ;  1549;  1550;  1551 
1552;  1554;  1556;  1561;  1571 
1575;  1585;  1600;  1604;  1606 
1610;  1616;  1620;  1631;  1634 
1640;  1655;  1657;  1699;  1704 
1705;  1708;  1715;  1750;  1755 
1758;  1760;  1765;  1767;  1773 
1775;     1814;    1819. 

Jewel's  Apology,  1562. 

Jewish  War,  66;  70 ;   135. 

Jews,  33  ;  34  ;  37  ;  41  ;  42  ;  45 ;  46 
55;  66;  114;  132 ;  135 ;  175;  178 
220 ;  279 ;  300 ;  325 ;  415  ;  424  ;  429 
431;  433;  450;  510;  533;  536;  538 
540;  541;  550;  567;  573;  581;  586 
653;  1450;  1495;  1513;  1728. 

Joachites,  1210. 

Joan,  850. 

Johannes  Scholasticus,  578. 

Johannes  Presbyter,  1133. 

John,  St.,  Epistles  of,  68  or  69 ;  Re- 
velation of,  96  or  97  ;  Gospel  of,  97 
or  98  ;  death  of,  about  100. 


ii  4 


488 


INDEX. 


John  the  Faster,  582  ;  587  ;  596. 

John  of  Damascus,  730  ;   750. 

John  Scotus  Erigena,  817;  845;  853; 

886. 
John  of  Salisbury,  1181. 
John  de  Monte  Corvino,  1289;  1307. 
John  of  Janduno,  1327. 
John  a  Lasco,  1556  ;  1560. 
John,  Elector  of  Saxony,  1525;  1526; 

1527;  1528. 
John  Frederic,  Elector  of  Saxony,  1531. 
John  Zimisces,  Emp.  E.,  969  ;   970. 
John  II.  (Comnenus),  Emp.  E.,  1118. 
John    III.    (Vatazes),     Greek    Emp., 

1222. 
John  IV.  (Palasologus),   Emp.    Const., 

1341. 
John  V.  (Cantacuzenus),  Emp.  Const., 

1347. 
John  VI.,  Emp.  Const.,  1396. 
John  VII.  (Palaeologus),   Emp.  Const., 

1425. 
Jonas,  Bp.  of  Orleans,  843. 
Jonas,  Justus,  1555. 
Joris,  David,  1556. 
Jornandes,  544. 
Joseph  I.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1704. 
Joseph  II.,  Emp.    Ger.,   1765;   1780; 

1781  ;   1786. 
Jovian,  Emp.,  363. 
Jovinian,  388. 
Jovius,  Paul,  1552. 
Jubilees,    1300;    1350;    1390;     1450; 

1475;   1600;   1725. 
Jude,  St.,  Epistle  of,  64  or  65. 
Judicatum,  546  ;  548. 
Julian,  Emp.,  351  ;   355  ;   361  ;  362. 
Julian,  Pelagian  Bp.,  419. 
Julianists,  521. 
Julius  Cassian,  196. 
Julius,  Nepos,  Emp.  W.,  474. 
Junius,  Francis,  1602. 
Jurieu,  P.,  1713. 

Jus  Prima  rum  Precum,  1708  ;   1709. 
Justin  I.,  Emp.  E.,  518  ;  524. 
Justin  II.,  Emp.  E.,  565;  572. 
Justin  Martyr,  148  ;    158  ;    163;    165. 
Justinian  I.,  Emp.  E.,527  ;  528  ;  529  J 

531;     532;    534;    535  ;  538  ;   539  ; 

540  ;  541  ;  547  ;  550  ;  553  ;  556  ; 

563. 
Justinian  II.,  Emp.  E.,  685;  restored, 

705. 
Juvencus,  331. 


Kant,  Immanuel,  1804. 
Keith,  George,  1695. 
Keller,  G.,  1827. 
Kennicolt,  B.,  1783. 
Kidder,  Richard,  1701. 


Kiermander,  1759- 

Kilian,  690. 

King's  Book,  the,  1543. 

Knapp,  G.  C,  1825. 

Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  1 1 80. 

See  also  Hospitalers. 
Knights  Templar,  1 120  ;   1128,';   1291; 

1304;   1307;    1310;    1311;'l314. 
Knights  Teutonic.      See  Teutonic. 
Knipperdolling,  1534. 
Knox,  John,  1547;   1555;   1572. 
Kocher,  J.  C,  1772. 
Koppe,  J.  B.,  1791. 
Koitholt,  Christian,  1694. 
Kraft,  F.  W.,  1758. 

L. 

Labadie,  J.,  1674. 

Labadists,  1669. 

Lactantius,  320  ;  326. 

Lambertini,  Prosper,  1740  ;    1758. 

Lambeth  Articles,  1595. 

Lammists,  1664. 

Lampe,  F.  A.,  1728. 

Lanfranc,  1042;    1059;    1062;   1070; 

1088. 
Lange,  J.,  1745. 
Langton,  Stephen,  1228. 
Lapsed,  Restoration  of  the,  203  ;  251  ; 

253;   304. 
Lardner,  Nathanael,  1768. 
Latimer,  1554  ;    1555. 
Latin    Empire    in    the    East,    1204  — 

1261. 
La  Trappe,  Order  of,  1664. 
Laud,  William,  1633;   1640;   1645. 
Launoi,  John,  1677. 
Laurentius,  498. 
Laurentius  Valla,  1465. 
Lavater,  J.  C,  1801. 
Laymann,  Paul,  1625. 
Lazarists,  1631. 
Lee,  Ann,  1784. 
Le  Fevre,  James,  1537. 
Leipsic,  Disputation  at,  1519. 
Leland,  Joh^  1766. 
Lenfant,  J.,  1728. 

Leo  I.  (the  Thracian),  Emp.  E„,  457. 
Leo  II.,  Emp.  E.,  474. 
Leo  III.   (Isauricus),  Emp.    E.,  717; 

726  ;   730. 
Leo  IV,  Emp.  E.,  775. 
Leo  V.  (the  Armenian),  Emp.  E.,  813  ; 

814. 
Leo  VI.    (the  Philosopher),  Emp.   E., 

886. 
Leo  I.,  or  the  Great,  Pope,  440  ;  447; 

451  ;  452;   455;  457. 
Leo  X.,  Pope,  1513  ;   1520. 
Leo  Allatius,  1648  ;    1669. 
Leonides,  202. 


INDEX. 


489 


Leontius,  Emp.  E.,  695. 

Leopold  I.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1657. 

Leopold  II.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1790. 

Less,  L.,  1587. 

Less,  G.,  1797. 

Lessing,  1777. 

Leszinsky,  Casimir,  1689. 

Leydekker,  M.,  1721. 

Libanius,  396. 

Licinius,  312;   314;  323. 

Lightfoot,  John,  1675. 

Liguorians,  1732;   1749;   1820. 

Limborch,  Philip,  1712. 

Lindsey,  Theophilus,  1774. 

Litanies,  469. 

Lbffler,  J.  H.  C,  1816. 

Lollards,  1300;  1379;  1388;  1395; 
1400;   1414. 

Lombard,  Peter,  1159;   1164. 

Lombards,  568  ;  578;  586;  712;  751; 
756;  774. 

Lord's  Day,  321. 

Lord's  Supper,  33 ;  35 ;  215 ;  256 
end  of  3d  cent.  ;  end  of  4th  cent. 
494 ;  end  of  5th  cent.  ;  506 ;  604 
750;  787;  813;  831;  844;  993 
1048;  1050;  1054;  1059;  1078 
1106;  1120;  1140;  1185;  1204 
1215;  1260;  1264;  1381;  1414 
1524;  1525;  1528;  1529;  1537 
1539;  1548;  1549;  1552;  1558 
1667. 

Loscher,  V.  E.,  1749. 

Lothaire  I.,  Emp.  W.,  843. 

Lothaire  II.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1125. 

Louis  the  Pious,  Emp.  W.,  814  ;  822  ; 
828  ;   831  ;   833  ;   834. 

Louis  of  Bavaria,  Emp.  Ger.,  1327. 

Lowth,  R.,  1787. 

Loyola,  Ignatius,  1521;  1523;  1524; 
1526;  1534;  1537;  1540;  1556; 
1623. 

Lucian  the  Martyr,  312. 

Lucifer,  Luciferians,  370. 

Lucius,  178. 

Luitprand,  968. 

Luke,  St.,  46  ;  50;  Gospel  by,  63  or  64. 

Lull,  753. 

Lully,  Raymond,  1315. 

Luther,  Martin,  1483 ;  1501  ;  1505 
1508;  1509;  1510;  1512;  1517 
1518;  1519;  1520;  1521;  1522 
1523;  1524;  1525;  1526;  1527 
1529;  1530;  1533;  1534;  1535 
1537;  1539;  1540;  1541;  1543 
1545;  1546. 


M. 


Macarius  the  Elder,  390. 
Macarius  the  Younger,  395. 


Macedonians,  Macedonius,  360;  361. 

Macrinus,  Emp.,  217. 

Magdeburg  Centuries,  1560;    1574. 

Mai,  J.  H.,  1719. 

Maimbourg,  Louis,  1686. 

Maine,  Cuthbert,  1577. 

Major,  George,  1574. 

Majorian,  Emp.  W.,  457. 

Majorinus,  31 1. 

Majoristic    Controversy,    1551;    1553; 

1556;   1562. 
Mamertus,  Bp.  of  Vienne,  463  ;   469. 
Mamertus,  Claudianus,  Presbyter,  473. 
Mandates,  Provisional,  1215. 
Mandeville,  1733. 
Manes,  240  ;   276. 
Manichees,    Manicheism,    274 ;      276 ; 

296;  372;  390;  400;  445;  602. 
Manuel  I.,  Emp.  E.,  1143. 
Manuel  II.,  Emp.  Const.,  1391. 
Marc,  J.,  1731. 
Marca,  Peter  de,  1662. 
Marcella,  163. 

Marcellus  of  Ancyra,  336  ;  341  ;  351. 
Marcia,  180. 
Marcian,  Emp.  E.,  450. 
Marcianus  Capella,  491. 
Marcion,  175;   207. 
Marcus  of  Palestine,  1 40. 
Marcus  Eugenicus,  1438. 
Maresius  (Desmarets),   Samuel,    1658; 

1675. 
Maresius,  S.  L.  E.,  1802. 
Maria  Theresa,  Empress  Ger.,  1740. 
Marius  Mercator,  420. 
Marius  Victor,  poet,  442. 
Mark,  St.,  50;  61 ;    Gospel  by,  61. 
Maronites,    end   of  7th   cent.  ;     1182; 

1837. 
Marpeger,  B.  W.,  1746. 
Marpurg,  Conferences  at,  1527  ;    1529. 
Marriage  of  the  Clergy,  305  ;  388  ;  450. 

See  also  Celibacy. 
Marsilius  of  Padua,  1327. 
Marsilius  Ficinus,  1499. 
Martene,  Edmund,  1739. 
Martin  of  Tours,  375  ;  400. 
Martin  of  Braga,  563. 
Martin,  Pope,  649 ;   653. 
Martin,  Raymond,  1285. 
Martina,  226. 
Martyn,  Henry,  1812. 
Martyr,    Peter,     1539;    1548;    1552; 

1562. 
Martyrologium  Romanum,  1586. 
Martyrs,  Commemoration  of,  167 ;  256  ; 

end  of  4th  cent.  ;   end  of  5th  cent. 
Masius,  H.  G.,  1709. 
Masora,  510. 

Mass.      See  Lord's  Supper, 
Massilians,  425. 


490 


INDEX. 


Massillon,  J.  B.,  1742. 

Massuet,  R.,  1716, 

Mastricht,  P.,  1706. 

Matthew,  St.,  Gospel  by,  37  ;  61. 

Matthew's  Bible,  1537. 

Matthias  of  Jannow,  1394. 

Matthias  at  Munster,  1534. 

Matthias,  Emp.  Ger.,  1612. 

Matthias,  at  New  York,  1832. 

Maur,  St.,  Congregation  of,  1618. 

Maurice,  Peter,  Abbot  of  Clugny,  1122; 

1156. 
Maurice,  Duke  of  Saxony,  1541 ;   1543. 
Mauritius,  Emp.  East,  582  ;  59 1  ;  593. 
Maximilian  I.,  Emp.  Ger.,  1493  ;  1510  ; 

1519. 
Maximilian,    II.,     Emp.    Ger.,    1564; 

1569. 
Maximinus,  Emp.,  235. 
Maximus,  Usurper,  383. 
Maximus,  Emp.  W.,  455. 
Maximus,  Confessor,  646  ;   653  ;   662. 
Mayer,  J.  R,  1712. 
Mayronius,  Francis,  1325. 
Meisner,  Balth.,  1626. 
Melanchthon,1497;  1514;  1518;  1519 

1521;     1524;    1527;    1530;     1535 

1539;     1543;    1548;     1553;    1558 

1560. 
Meletian  Schism,  first,  306;  325;  second, 

361  ;  362  ;   400. 
Melito,  170. 
Menander,  96. 
Mendelsohn,  Moses,  1785. 
Mendicants,  1207;  1220;  1221  ;   1223; 

1231;     1232;    1245;     1256;    1274  j 

1355  ;    1360. 
Menno  Simonis,  1537  ;    1561. 
Mennonites,  1561  ;  1581  ;  1626  ;  1632  ; 

1664  ;    1755;   1800. 
Menzer,  Balth.,  1627. 
Messalians,  370. 
Methodists,  Methodist  Churches,   1739; 

1741;    1766;    1788;    1790;    1797; 

1801;    1803;     1810;     1812:     1814; 

1821;     1823;     1833. 
Methodius,  855  ;  863  ;  868  ;  879  ;  880  ; 

894. 
Metropolitans,  331 ;  343. 
Meyer,  1816. 

Michael  L,  Emp.  E.,  811. 
Michael   II.   (Balbus),   Emp.  E.,  820 ; 

827. 
Michael  III.,  Emp.  E.,  842. 
Michael  IV.,  Emp.  E.,  1034. 
Michael  V.,  Emp.  E.,  1041. 
Michael  VI.    ( Stratioticus),    Emp.    E., 

1055. 
Michael  VII.,  Emp.  E.,  1071. 
Michael  Psellius,  1050. 
Michael  Cerularius,  1046  ;  1053  ;  1054. 


Michael  Palaeologus,  Greek  Emp.,  1261  ; 

1274. 
Michael  de  Bay.      See  Baius. 
Michaelis,  J.  H.,  1720. 
Michaelis,  J.  D.,  1791. 
Micislaus,  966  ;   997. 
Middle  Ages,  barbarism  of,  510. 
Middleton,  Richard,  1304. 
Milan,  Edict  of,  313. 
Milicz,  John,  1360;   1367. 
Millenary  Petition,  1603. 
Millenium,  155  ;   157  ;  262. 
Miltitz,  1519;  1520. 
Ministers  of  the  Church,  44 ;  55;  70 ; 

97  ;  end  of  2d  cent.  ;  252. 
Minimi.      See  Franciscans. 
Minucius  Felix,  208  ;   220. 
Missale  Roman um,  1570. 
Missionary  Societies.      See  Society. 
Missions,  Priests  of  the,  1631. 
Mogelas,  Peter,  1643. 
Moguls,    1206;     1221;    1241;    1245; 

1249;  1251;  1258;  1289;  1307;  1369. 
Mohammed,  570;  611;  622;  630;  632. 
Molanus,  G.  M.,  1722. 
Molina,  1588. 

Molinistic  Controversies,  1598. 
Molinos,  Michael,  1675  ;   1687  ;   1695  ; 

1696. 
Monachism,  193;  250;  309;  325;  340; 

355;  365;  368;  378;  390;  407;  450; 

463;  504;  506;  536;  591 ;  598;  601  ; 

610;  675;  end  of  7th  cent. ;  745;  813; 

829;  910;  969  ;  1072  ;  1073  ;  1215  ; 

1350;   1494;   1524;   1536;    1539. 
Mongus,  Peter,  452  ;  478  ;  482. 
Monophysites,    446;    449;    452;    457; 

459;  463;  475;  476;  477;  478;  482; 

488;  512;  521;  529;  535;  536;  538; 

541;  545;  547;  553;  565;  625;   end 

of  9th  cent. ;  1837.    See  also  Eutyches. 
Monothelites,  625;  633;  648;  656;  648; 

649;    653;   680;   end    of  7th    cent.; 

712;  1837. 
Montanism  ;     Montanists ;     Montanus, 

157;   188;   203;   215;  232. 
Montanus,  Benedict  Arias,  1598. 
Montfaucon,  B.,  1741. 
Moore,  Henry,  1679. 
Moravians,  863  ;  868  ;  875  ;   end  of  9th 

cent. 
More,  Sir  Thomas,  1534;  1535. 
Morgan,  Thomas,  1741. 
Morus,  S.  F.  N.,  1792. 
Moschus,  610. 

Moscow,  Patriarchate  of,  1700. 
Mosheim,  J.  L.,  1755. 
Moulin,  P.  Du,  1658. 
Miinscher,  W.,  1814. 
Munster,  Anabaptists  of,  1534. 
Miinter,  F.,  1830. 


INDEX. 


491 


Munzer,  1523;  1525. 
Muratori,  L.  A.,  1734;    1750. 
Mursinna,  S.,  1795. 
Musa?us,  John,  1645;   1681. 
Musculus,  Andreas,  1563. 
Mystics,  1160;   1274;    1350. 

N. 
Nantes,  Edict  of,  1597  ;   1685. 
Natalius,  203. 

Nativity,  Festival  of  the,  350. 
Nazarenes,  66. 

Necessary  Doctrine  and  Erudition,  1543 
Nemesius,  399. 
Nepos,  262. 
Nerva,  Emp.,  96. 
Nestorians,  Nestorian  Controversy,  428 

430;  431;  432;  433;  451;  499;  529 

602;  655;  787;   799;    1025;    1380 

1599;  1837. 
Nestor ius,  428. 
New  Jerusalem  Church.      See  Sweden- 

borgians. 
Nicaea,  Council  of,  I.,  325  ;   II.,  787. 
Nicephorus  I.   (Logotheta),   Emp.  E., 

802. 
Nicephorus    II.     (Phocas),    Emp.    E., 

963;   965. 
Nicephorus  III.,  Emp.  E.,  1078. 
Nicephorus,   Patriarch  of  Const.,  814; 

815;    827. 
Nicephorus  Blemmidas,  1253. 
Nicetas  Pectoratus,  1050  ;   1054. 
Nicephorus  Callistus,  1333. 
Nicephorus  Gregoras,  1340;   1353. 
Nicholas  L,  Pope,  858  ;   863. 
Nicholas   de    Clemangis,   1394;    1420; 

1441. 
Nicholas  of  Hussinetz,  1417. 
Nicholas  de  Cusa,  1464. 
Nicholas,  Henry,  154;    1555. 
Nicolaitans,  104;  188, 
Nicolas  de  Lyra,  1325  ;    1339. 
Niemeyer,  A.  H.,  1828. 
Nilus  Doxipatrius,  1042. 
Niobes,  Niobites,  565. 
Niphon,  1143. 
Noailles,    Abp.   of  Paris,  1708 ;   1711; 

1717;   1720;   1728. 
Noel's  Catechism,  1563. 
Noetus,  230. 
Nonconformists,    1565;    1572;    1573; 

1669;    1686. 
Nonjurors,  1688;    1714. 
Nonnus,  394  ;  410. 
Norbert,  1118  ;    1121;   1126. 
Noris,  H.,  1704. 
Nosselt,  J.  A.,  1807. 
Notker  Labeo,  1022. 
Novatianism,  251 ;   254. 
No  vat  us  and  Felicissimus,  251. 


Novels,  1130. 

Nuremberg,  Diets  of,  1522;   1524. 

Nuremberg,  Pacification  of,  1531. 

O. 

Occam,  William,  1324;   1347. 

Occhino,  Bernardino,  1540  ;    1564. 

Odenatus,  264. 

Odo,  927. 

Odoacer,  475 ;  476. 

(Ecolampadius,    1482;     1519;     1524; 

1525;   1531. 
Olaf  Trygvesen,  997. 
Olearius  Caspar,  1587. 
Olearius,  G.,  1715. 
Olga,  955. 

Olivetan,  Robert,  1535. 
Olybrius,  Emp.  W.,  472. 
Onkelos,  46. 
Ophites,  140. 
Optatus  of  Milevi,  384. 
Oratory,    Priests   of   the    (at    Rome), 

1548;   1574;  (in  France),  1613. 
Ordeals,  829. 
Organs,  800. 
Origen,  204;  213;  214;  215;  220;  228; 

229;  230;  231;  232;  235;  238,  239; 

240;  250;  252;  254;  309. 
Origenist  Controversy,  296;  378;  395; 

399;  401;   407;   541. 
Orleans,  Brethren  of,  1016. 
Orosius,  Paul,  418  ;  471. 
Orsi,  J.  A.,  1761. 
Orthodox     Confession    of    the     Greek 

Church,  1643. 
Orthodoxy,  Festival  of,  842. 
Osianler,  1552. 
Osiandrian  Controversy,    1549;    1555, 

1556. 
Ostrogoths,  397. 
Othol.  (the  Great ),Emp.  W.,  936;  951 ; 

955;   960;  961  ;   963;   969. 
Otho  II.,  Emp.  W.,  973, 
Otho  III.,  Emp.  W.,  983. 
Otho  IV.,    Emp.  Ger.,  1208. 
Otho,    Bp.    of  Bamberg,  1124;   1128; 

1139. 
Ottoman  Empire,  1299;    1352. 
Oxford  Decree,  1683. 

P. 

Pachomius,  325. 
Pachymeres,  1307. 
Pagani,  368. 
Pagi,  F.,  1721. 
Pagninus,  1541. 
Paine,  Thomas,  1793. 
Palamas,  Gregory,  1340;   1355. 
Palladius,  407. 
Paludanus,  Peter,  1342. 
Pamphilus,  307  ;   309. 


492 


INDEX. 


Pantaenus,  180;   188;   193. 

Papacy.      See  Rome,  Church  of. 

Paphnutius,  325. 

Papias,  119;   163. 

Pareus,  David,  1622. 

Parker's  Bible,  1568. 

Parsons,  1580;    1581. 

Pascal,  Blaise,  1656  ;   1662. 

Paschal    Controversy,   158;   196;  325; 

326  ;   602 ;    628  ;    664  ;    end  of  7th 

cent. 
Passau,  Treaty  of,  1552. 
Passionei,  D.,  1761. 
Paterini,  1179. 
Patriarchate,  400  ;  430. 
Patrick,  432  ;  454  ;  460. 
Patripassians,  193. 
Paul,  St.,   35  ;  42 ;  44 ;    45  ;   46  ;  47  ; 

48  ;  49  ;  50  ;  54 ;  58  ;  60 ;  63 ;  64 ; 

65;  66. 
Paul    of   Samosata,   260 ;    265  ;    269 ; 

272;  274. 
Paul  the  Hermit,  250  ;  340. 
Paula,  404. 
Paulicians,  650;  680;  685;  717;  780; 

811  ;   845',  871  ;  970;   1010. 
Paulinus  (of  Nola),  409;  431. 
Paulinus  (of  Aquileia),  804. 
Pearce,  Z.,  1774. 
Pearson,  John,  1688. 
Peasants,  War  of  the,  1523;    1525. 
Pecock,  Reginald,  1458. 
Pelagianism,      Pelagius,     404 ;      410 

411  ;    415;    416;    417;  418;   419 

420  ;    425  ;    432  ;    442  ;    446  ;  452 

469;   529. 
Pelagius,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  587. 
Penance.        See      Discipline    of    the 

Church. 
Penitentiary  Presbyters,  256. 
Penitents,  White,  1399. 
Penn,    William,    1666;     1668;     1682; 

1718. 
Pepin  the  Short,  752;  756;  759. 
Peregrinus,  death  of,  165. 
Perkins,  William,  1602. 
Perpetual  Edict,  130. 
Persecutions,  33  ;  34 ;  36 

100;   107  ;    111  ;    114 
163;    180 


138;   150; 

212;   222;    235;    248 

252;   257;    274;    296 


64;  70; 81 ; 

117;    122; 

201  ;    203 ; 

249 ;    250  ; 

303;    314; 

527;    540; 
Huguenots  : 


342;  420;    483;    476 
697  ;    820.       See    also 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel ;   Reform- 
ation ;   Waldenses. 

Perth,  Articles  of,  1618  ;    1638. 

Petavius,  Dionysius,  1644;   1652. 

Peter,  St.,  35  ;  43  ;  66;  First  Epistle 
of,  64  ;  Second  Epistle,  65  ;  Patri- 
mony of,  1220. 


Peter  Chrysologus,  456. 

Peter  Mongus,  452  ;  478  ;  482. 

Peter    the    Fuller,    463;    471;     485; 

488. 
Peter  the  Hermit.      See  Crusades. 
Peter  of  Bruys,  1103  ;   1124. 
Peter  the  Venerable.      See  Maurice. 
Peter  Cantor,  1197. 
Peter  Comestor,  1198. 
Peter  of  Blois,  1200. 
Peter  of  Corbeil,  1222. 
Peter  Aureolus,  1343. 
Peter    Martyr,    1539;     1548;     1552; 

1562. 
Peter's  Pence,  792. 
Petersen,  J.  W.,  1727. 
Petrarch,  1363;    1374. 
Petrobrusians,  1124. 
Peucer,  1570;    1574. 
Peysel,  Conrad,  1724. 
Pfaff,  C.  M.,  1720;   1760. 
Pfeffinger,  1555. 
Pfeiffer,  A.,  1698. 
Phantasiasts,  521. 
Philastrius,  374 ;   387. 
Philemon,  Epistle  to,  62  or  63. 
Philip,  Emp.,  244. 
Philip,     Landgrave    of    Hesse,    1526; 

1527. 
Philip  of  Neri,  1548. 
Philippians,  Epistle  to  the,  62  or  63. 
Philippicus,  Emp.  E.,  710, 
Philippopolis,  Council  of,  347. 
Philoponus,  565. 
Philostorgius,  History  of,  425. 
Philostratus,  218. 
Philoxenus,  449 ;   488. 
Phocas,  Emp.  E.,  602  ;  606. 
Phoebadius,  359. 
Photinus,  346  ;  351  ;  357. 
Photius,     Patriarch   of    Constantinople, 

858;  861;  863;    867;    878;    879; 

886;  891. 
Phthartolatree,  521. 
Piarists,  Order  of,  1616. 
Pictet,  Benedict,  1696;   1724. 
Pictures  and  Images  in  Churches,  305 ; 

370.      See  also  Images. 
Picus,  John,  of  Mirandola,  1 494. 
Pierius,  247. 

Pilate,  Pontius,  33  ;   36  ;   Acts  of,  311. 
Pilgrimages,  745  ;   1046;   1064. 
Pin,  Du,  L.  E.,  1686;   1717;   1719. 
Pinkzovians,  1563. 

Pisa,  General  Council  of,  1409  ;   1511. 
Piscator,  John,  1603. 
Pistoja,  Council  of,  1786;   1787;   1794. 
Pistorius,  1543. 
Pius  II.,  Pope,  1458;   1462. 
Placette,  La,  J.,  1718. 
Planck,  G.  J.,  1833. 


INDEX. 


493 


Platon,  1812. 

Platonism,  Platonists,  49  ;  204 ;  226  ; 
232;  439;  451  ;   529. 

Pliny  to  Trajan,  and  Trajan  to  Pliny, 
Epistles  of,  111. 

Plotinus,  232  ;  262  ;   270. 

Plutshau,  1704. 

Pneumatomachi.      See  Macedonians. 

Poissy,  Conference  at,  1561. 

Pole,  Cardinal,  1554;  1555;  1556; 
1558. 

Polycarp,  158  ;   167. 

Pomeranus.      See  Bugenhagen. 

Pontius  of  Aries,  1016. 

Pontoppidan,  E.,  1764. 

Pope,  655. 

Porphyry,  262  ;   268  ;   304. 

Port  Royal,  1233;  1626;  1638;  1665; 
1705;    1708. 

Possevin,  Antony,  1 580  ;   1611. 

Pothinus,  176. 

Potter,  John,  1747. 

Pragmonstratensian  Canons,  1121  ;  1126. 

Praxeas,  193  ;   203. 

Prayers  for  the  Dead,  215. 

Prayers  to  Saints,  800. 

Precentors,  370. 

Predestination,    Predestinarian   Contro- 
versies, 442;  469;  475;  510;  529 
847  ;  853  ;  855  ;   1551  ;  1554;  1555 
1558;    1567;     1590;     1595;    1600: 
1603;    1618;     1663;     1677;     1824. 

Presbyter.  See  Ministers ;  Constitu- 
tion and  Government  of  the  Church. 

Presbyter  Penitentiarius,  390. 

Presbyterians,  1566;  1572;  1573; 
1577;  1592;  1638;  1647;  1655; 
1689;   1691;   1795;   1810;   1812. 

Presbytery  (English),  1645. 

Prideaux,  Humphrey,  1724. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  1804. 

Priscillianists,  372  ;  380  ;  383  ;  400  ; 
561. 

Proba  Falconia,  394. 

Probus,  Emp.,  276. 

Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Contro- 
versy concerning  the,  589  ;  768  ;  796  ; 
809;  867. 

Procopius  (of  Gaza),  527. 

Procopius  (historian),  563. 

Procopowitz,  Theophanes,  1741. 

Professio  Fidei  Tridentina,  1564. 

Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  33  ;  34  ;  37 
40;   41  ;    45;    65;    81;    188;    193 
end    of  2d    cent.;   204;    231;    248 
252  ;    253  ;    259 ;    282 ;    end    of    3d 
cent.;  314;   319;    323;    328;    341; 
350;    361;    370;    388;    394;    397; 
400  ;    425  ;    431  ;    433  ;    451  ;    454  ; 
467;    477;    504;    514;    527;    533; 
561;    596;    598;    602:    604;    606; 


627;  630;  631;  634;  635;  640; 
648;  651;  678;  690;  696 ;  end  of 
7th  cent.;  715;  730;  735;  739 
755;  768;  799;  809;  814;  820 
826;  828;  830;  831;  834;  848 
855 ;  861  ;  862 ;  865 ;  877  ;  878 
894;  end  of  9th  cent.;  900;  911 
924;  934;  938;  939;  945;  951 
955  ;  965  ;  966  ;  967  ;  972 ;  982 
988 ;  997  ;  999  ;  1003  ;  1007  ;  1008 
1016;  1065;  1076;  1120;  1124 
1125;  1133,  1156;  1157;  1162 
1169;  1186;  1208;  1215;  1230 
1258;  1275;  1289;  1307;  1311 
1325;  1343;  1385;  end  of  15th 
cent.;  1517;  1522;  1529;  1556 
1570;  1576;  1603;  1616;  1621 
1627;  1630;  1640;  1650;  1652 
1658;  1663;  1698;  1699;  1700 
1704;  1721;  1723;  1728;  1736 
1749;  1751;  1753;  1792;  1793 
1795;  1796;  1797;  1800;  1804 
1808;  1810;  1814;  1815;  1816 
1819;  1823;  1824;  1826;  1827 
1828. 

Prophesyings,  1 574  ;  1577. 

Prosper  of  Aquitaine,  461. 

Proterius,  452  ;   457  ; 

Protest  and  Appeal,  1529. 

Protestants,  origin  oof  the  name,  1529. 
See  Reformation. 

Protestant  Churches,  Notes  concerning, 
1812;   1837. 

Protevangelion,  37. 

Protosyncelli ;  end  of  7th  cent. 

Prudentius,  poet,  399. 

Prudentius  of  Troyes,  849  ;   853. 

Prussian  Agenda,  1834. 

Ptolemy,  140. 

Publicani,  1179. 

Pulleyn,  Robert,  1150. 

Purgatory,  Doctrine  of,  240  ;  407 ;  604 ; 
615;  950;  1000;  1164;  1439; 
1547. 

Purification,  Festival  of  the,  526. 

Puritans,  1564;  1573;  1575;  1585; 
1589;     1593;   ,1603;     1604. 

Pyrrhus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
646. 


Q. 

Quadratus,  Apology  of,  1 22. 
Quakers.      See  Friends. 
Quartodecimani,  326. 
Quatuor  Propositiones  Cleri   Gallicani, 

1682. 
Quenstedt,  J.  A.,  1688. 
Quesnel,  Paschasius,  1670;  1693;  1708; 

1711  ;    1719. 
Quien,  Le,  M.,  1735. 


494 


INDEX. 


Quietists  of  Mount  Athos,  1340;  1341 : 

1347;   1350. 
Quietists  (Molinist),  1687  ;   1695. 
Quinisextum,  692. 
Quirini,  A.M.,  1755. 
Quistorp,  John,  1648. 

R. 

Rabanus     Maurus,    822 ;     829 ;     831  ; 
845;   847;   856. 

Racovian  Catechism,  1 605  ;   1684. 

Radbert,  Paschasius,  831  ;   844;  865. 

Rambach,  J.  J.,  1 735. 

Rambach,  F.  E.,  1 775. 

Ranee,  De,  1664. 

Raskolnites,  1666;   1762;   1785. 

Ratherius,  974. 

Rationalism,  1755  ;  1778;  1782  ;  1793  ; 
1796;  1799;  1820;  1824  :  1830;  1837. 

Ratisbon,  Interim  of,  1541. 

Ratisbon,  Consultation  at,  1719. 

Ratramn,  844  ;   850 ;   868. 

Raymond  of  Toulouse,  1198;    1 325. 

Raymond  de   Penna  forti,  1234;    1238. 

Raynaud,  Theoph.,  1 663. 

Realists  and  Nominalists,  1072. 

Reccared,  589. 

Rechenberg,  A.,  1721. 

Redemptorists,  1  732  ;  1749;  1820. 

Reformation,  1309;  1311  ;  1360;  1392 
1394;  1406;  1414;  1431;  1479 
1489;  1498;  1505;  1517;  1519 
1520;  1521;  1523;  1524;  1525 
1526;  1527;  1528;  1529;  1532 
1533;  1534;  1535;  1536;  1537 
1538;  1539;  1541;  1542;  1544 
1545;  1546;  1547;  1549;  1550 
1553;  1555;  1556;  1558;  1560 
1563;  1564;  1570;  1606;  1614 
1648;  1686;  1688. 

Reinbeck,  J.  G.,  1741. 

Reinhard,  F.  V.,  1812. 

Relics,  360. 

Relief  Church,  1752. 

Religion,  state  of,  at  the  beginning  of 
tbe  Christian  Era,  49. 

Religious  Edict  (Prussian),  1788. 

Religious     Schools,     Fathers    of.     See 
Piarists. 

Remigius  of  Rheims,  469. 

Remigius  of  Lyons,  853  ;  855  ;  859. 

Remonstrants,  1610,1611;  1613;  1618; 
1630,  1631;   1661;  1664. 

Renaudot,  E.,  1720. 

Restitution,  Edict  of,  1629,  1648. 

Reuchlin,  1513,  1514;   1516;    1522. 

Rhynsburgians,  1630. 

Ricci,  Matthew,  1603  ;   1610. 

Ricci,  Scipio,  1786;   1790. 

Richard  of  St.  Victor,  1 173. 

Richer,  Edmund,  1633. 


Ricimer,  465 ;  472. 

Ridley,  1550;    1553)  1554;   1555. 

Ries,  John,  1580. 

Rivet,  Andrew,  1651. 

Robbers,  Synod  of,  449. 

Robert,  Emp.  Ger.,  1400. 

Robinson,  John,  1626. 

Rochester,  Earl  of,  1 680. 

Rodolph  I.  (of  Hapsburg),  Emp.  Ger., 
1273. 

Rodolph     II.,     Emp.      Ger.,     1576  ; 
1578;    1601. 

Roell,  H.  A.,  1718. 

Rogations,  469. 

Roman  Catechism,  1566. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  the,  57. 

Romanusl.  (Lecapenus),  Emp.  E.,  919. 

Romanus  II.,  Emp.  E.,  959. 

Romanus  III.,  Emp.  E.,  1028. 

Romanus  IV.    (Diogenes),    Emp.    E., 
1068;   1071. 

Rome,  Church  of,  98;  196,;  385;  405 
416;  418;  419;  440;  441;  444;  445 
446;  461  ;  463;  465;  472;  480;  483 
494;  496;  502;  503;  521;  531;  538 
567;  587;  591;  596;  606;  613;  628 
641 ;  655 ;  663 ;  675 ;  682 ;  695 ;  end  of 
7th  cent.  ;710;  718;  728;  732;  741 
756;  787;  792;  794;  813;  814;  822 
834;  844;  858;  864;  866;  871  ;[875 
879;  888;  end  of  9th  cent.  ;  960;'963 
991;  997;  1009;  1046;  1054;  1059 
1066;    1072,     1073;    1075;     1077 


1084;    1085; 

1094; 

1096; 

1106 

1143;    1145; 

1155; 

1157; 

1159 

1198;    1204; 

1208  ; 

1212; 

1213 

1215;    1220; 

1223; 

1244; 

1245 

1265;    1268; 

1273; 

1296; 

1302 

1308;    1317; 

1322; 

1323; 

1324 

1327;    1348; 

1350; 

1389; 

1414 

1422;    1431  ; 

1445; 

1447; 

1456 

1458;    1459; 

1460; 

1495; 

1517 

1540; 1564;  1590;  1593;  endcfl6t 

cent.  ;    1 602  ; 

1604; 

1606; 

1629 

1646;    1648; 

1652; 

1654; 

1666 

1669;    1676; 

1682; 

1684, 

1685 

1687;    1693; 

1699; 

1700; 

1708 

1709;    1710; 

1713; 

1715; 

1717 

1725;    1726; 

1746; 

1755; 

1765 

1769;    1775; 

1781  ; 

1782; 

1787 

1790;    1793; 

1798; 

1801  ; 

1806 

1809;    1814; 

1823; 

1829; 

1832 

1837. 

Romulus  Augus 

:ulus,  Emp.  W. 

475. 

Rosenmuller,  J. 

G.,  1815. 

Rosicrucians,  1611. 

Roswitha,  984. 

Rousseau,  J.  J., 

1778. 

Rua?us,  1739. 

Ruffin,  378  ;  410. 

Ruysbrock,  John 

,  1381. 

INDEX. 


495 


Sabatier,  P.,  1752. 

Sabbatarian  Controversy,  1630. 

Sabbatarians,  1691. 

Sabellians,  Sabellus,  258. 

Sack,  A.  F.W.,  1786. 

Sack,  F.  S.  G.,  1817. 

Sacramental   Controversy.      See   Lord's 

Supper. 
Sacramentaries,  1537;  1538. 
Sacramentum,  204. 
Sacrum  Rescriptum,  418. 
Saints'  Days,  343. 
Saints,  Worship  of,  909. 
Saladin  Tax,  1200. 
Sales,  Francis  de,  1618;   1622. 
Salesianerins,  Order  of,  1618. 
Salmasius,  Claudius,  1653. 
Salvian,  439  ;   450  ;   484. 
Samson,  Bernardin,  1519. 
Sanchez,  Thomas,  1610. 
Sand,  Christopher,  1681. 
Sandemanians,  1730. 
Saracens,    647,    648  ;  651  ;  655  ;  669  ; 
697;  706;  707;  711;  714;  717;  732; 
823;  826. 
Sardica,  Council  of,  347. 
Sarpi,  Paul,  1605;   1623. 
Saturninus,  122. 
Saunier,  Antony,  1532. 
Saurin,  J.,  1730. 
Savoy  Conference,  166. 
Saw  trey,  William,  1400. 
Sbinco,  1409,  1410. 
Sceuophylaces,  end  of  7th  cent. 
Schalf,  Adam,  1627. 
Schertzer,  J.  A.,  1683. 
Schism.      See  Meletian  ;  Novatian. 
Schism,  the  Great  Western,  1378;  1380; 
1389;  1394; 1398; 1403;  1404;  1406; 
1407;  1408 ; 1409; 1414; 1429. 
Schleiermacher,  F.  E.,  1834. 
Schleusner,  J.  F.,  1792;   1831. 
Schlichting,  Jonas,  1661. 
Schmid,  Sebastian,  1697. 
Schmidt,  C.  F.,  1778. 
Schmidt,  J.  W.,  1796. 
Schmidt,  J.  E.  C,  1831. 
Scholastic  Tbejlogy,  604  ;   817  ;  1073 
1086;    1088;    1106;    1125;    1150 
1274;    1286;    1308;    1325;     1333 
1464. 
Schottgen,  Christian,  1751. 
Schrbck,  J.  M.,  1808. 
Schultens,  A.,  1750. 
Schwartz,  Valentine,  1622. 
Schwartz,  C.  F.,  1751;    1798. 
Schwenkfeld,  Caspar,  1561. 
Scotists.      See  Thomists  and  Scotists. 
Scriptures  in  English,  use  of  the,  1536; 
1539;  1540; 1546; 1547;  1559; 1611. 


Secession  Church,  Scottish,  1731 ;  1745; 

1747;    1820. 
Seeker,  Thomas,  1768. 
Secundus,  325. 
Sedulius,  442. 
Segarelli,  Gerard,   1260;   1280;    1286; 

1290;   1300. 
Seiler,  G.  F.,  1807. 
Select  Vestry  Act,  1663. 
Seljukians,  1000;    1038;    1055;    1063; 

1072;     1075;   1076;    1086;    1092; 

1103. 
Selnecker,  Nicholas,  1592. 
Semiarians.      See  Arianism. 
Seminarium    Pro    Propaganda     Fide, 

1627. 
Seminary  Priests,  Act  against,  1585. 
Semipelagians,  425 ;  434  ;  475  ;  529. 
Semler,  J.  S.,  1771;  1782;  1791. 
Sendomir,  Council  of  Faith  at,  1570. 
Septimius  Severus,  Emp.,  192. 
Sergius,    Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 

633,  634. 
Servatus  Lupus,  853. 
Servetus,  Michael,  1531  ;   1553. 
Servites,  Order  of,  1232. 
Sethites,  140. 
Seven  Sleepers,  447. 
Severians,  521. 
Severinus,  482. 

Severus,  follower  of  Tatian,  1 70. 
Severus  Septimius,  Emp.,  193. 
Severus,  Emp.  W.,  461. 
Severus  of  Constantinople,  488  ;    510  ; 

512. 
Shaftesbury,  Earl  of,  1713. 
Shakers,  1770;   1774. 
Sherlock,  Thomas,  1761. 
Sibylline  Books,  135. 
Sicilian  Vespers,  1 282. 
Sidonius  Apollinaris,  471  ;  488. 
Sigismund,  Emp.  Ger.,  1411. 
Silas,  46  ;  50. 
Silverius,  537. 

Simeon  Metaphrastes,  912;   976. 
Simeon  Stylites,  425  ;  461. 
Simon  Magus,  35  ;   42. 
Simon,  R.,  1712. 

Simon,  St.;  Simonians,  St.,  1825;  1829. 
Simony,  596 ;   675. 
Simplicius,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  480. 
Singers,  370. 
Sirmium,  Councils  and  Creeds  of,  351  ; 

357;  358;  359. 
Sirmond,  J.,  1651. 
Sisters  of  Charity,  Order  of,  1634. 
Six  Articles,  Act  of  the,  1539;    1546. 
Skelton,  Philip,  1789. 
Slavi,  514. 
Sleidan,  1556. 
'    Smalcald,  Articles  of,  1537. 


496 


INDEX. 


Smalcald,    League    of,    1531;     1535; 

1536;    1538;   1539. 
Smalc'aldic  War,  1546. 
Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Know- 
ledge, 1698. 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel 

in  Foreign  Parts,  1701. 
Society,  Baptist  Missionary,  1792. 
Society,  London  Missionary,  1795. 
Society,  Scotch  Missionary,  1796. 
Society,  Dutch  Missionary,  1797. 
Society,  (English)   Church  Missionary, 

1800. 
Society,    British    and    Foreign    Bible, 

1804. 
Society   for    Conversion   of    the   Jews, 

1808. 
Society,    Great    American    Missionary, 

1810. 
Society,  Methodist  Missionary,  1814. 
Society,  American   Baptist  Missionary, 

1814. 
Society,  United  Missionary,  1816. 
Society,  Evangelical  Missionary,  1816. 
Society,    North    American     Protestant 

Episcopal  Church,  1820. 
Societies,  Auxiliary  Missionary,  1819. 
Society,  American   Methodist   Mission- 
ary, 1819. 
Society,    Berlin,   for    Evangelical  Mis- 
sions, 1823. 
Society,   Paris  Evangelical  Missionary, 

1824. 
Society,    American    Inland  Missionary, 

1826. 
Society,  Missionary,  at  Lausanne,  1827. 
Society,  Rhenish  Missionary,  1828. 
Socinians,    1546;    1563;   1620;   1638; 

1658;   1758;    1795;   1817. 
Socinus,  Laelius,  1547  ;   1551;   1562. 
Socinus,   Faustus,    1574;   1578;    1592; 

1604. 
Socrates,  History  of,  439. 
Sollicitudo     Omnium,     Bull     entitled, 

1814. 
Somaschi,  1528. 
Sonnists,  1664. 
Sophronius,  633  ;   634. 
Southcott,  Johanna,  1792;   1814. 
Sozomen,  History  of,  439. 
Spalatin,  George,   1548. 
Spalding,  J.  G.,  1804. 
Spangenberg,  A.  G.,  1792. 
Spanheim,  Frederic  (the  Elder),   1649. 
Spanheim,      Frederic     (the    Younger), 

1701. 
Spener,     P.  J.,      1666;     1675;     1677; 

1686;    1691;    1694;     1700;    1704; 

1 705. 
Spinola,  1695. 
Spinosa,  Benedict,  1677. 


Spires,  Diet  of,  1529. 

Spirituals.      See  Franciscans. 

Sports,  Book  of,  1618  ;    1633. 

Stackhouse,  Thomas,  1752. 

Stancaristic  Controversy,  1551. 

Stange,  T.  F.,  1831. 

Staudlin,  K.  F.,  1826. 

Staupitz,  John,  1505;    1524. 

Stedingians.  1235. 

Steinbart,  G.  S.,  1809. 

Stephen,  St.,  34. 

Stephen,  Emp.  E.,  919. 

Stickna,  Conrad,  1367. 

Stobaeus,  499. 

Stoics,  49.  ! 

Storr,  C.  C,  1804. 

Stosch,  E.  H.  D.,  1781. 

Sturmio,  745. 

Suarez,  Francis,  1613;    1616. 

Sulpicius  Severus  (historian),  404. 

Sulpicius  Severus  (Bp.),  591.] 

Superstition ;   end   of  4th  cent.  ;   439 

534;    550;    558;    572;   675;    831 

871;    909;   931;    950;   993;    1001 

end    of   11th    cent.;     1177;     1201 

1220;     1250;     1299;   1652;     1693 

1734. 
Supralapsarians,  1590. 
Supremacy,  Oath  of,  1559;    1563. 
Sutry,  Council  of,  1046. 
Swartz,  Ildef,  1794. 
Swedenborg,     Swedenborgians,     1750; 

1758;    1771;     1772;    1783;    1787; 

1822;    1828. 
Sylvestrians,  Order  of  the,  1231. 
Symeon  of  Jerusalem,  death  of,   104  or 

107. 
Symmachus,      translator    of     the    Old 

Testament,  1 93  ;   202. 
Symmachus,    Roman    Patriarch,     498 ; 

503. 
Symphorosa,  121. 
Syncelli,  end  of  7th  cent. 
Syncellus,  George,  800. 
Svncretistic   Controversy,  1 634  ;    1639; 

"1643;   1645;   1655;   1677;   1689. 
Synergistic  Controversy,  1555  ;   1560. 
Synesius,  410  ;  430. 
Synod  of  Robbers,  449. 
Synodus  Palmaris,  503. 

T. 

Taborites,  1420 ;   1433;   1434. 
Tacitus,  Emperor,  275. 
Tanchelin,  1115. 
Talmud,  Babylonian,  450. 
Tapers,  370. 
Tatian,  158;   165;    176. 
Tatianists,  165. 
Tauler,  John,  1361. 
Taverner's  Bible,  1539. 


INDEX. 


497 


Taylor,  John,  1761. 

Teller,  W.  A.,  1804. 

Templars.     See  Knights. 

Tenison,  T.,  1715. 

Terministic  Controversy,  1701. 

Tertiary  Friars.      See  Franciscans. 

Tertullian,  196;   198  ;  203;  204;  207; 

218. 
Test  Act,  1673;   1827. 
Tetrapolitan  Confession,  1530. 
Tetzel,  1517. 

Teutonic  Knights,  1192;   1230;   1237. 
Theatines,  Order  of,  1524. 
Theban  Legion,  286. 
Thebuthis,  104. 
Themistians,  521. 
Theoctistus,  Bp.  of  Caesarea,  215. 
Theodahat,  534  ;  536. 
Theodora,  535 ;   537;  556. 
Theodora,  Empress  E.,  1054. 
Theodore  Ascidas,  538  ;   541. 
Theodore  Balsamon,  1215. 
Theodore,    Abp.    of  Canterbury,   668 ; 

675. 
Theodore  Cassiteras,  815. 
Theodore Lascaris  I.,  Greek  Emp.,1207. 
Theodore  Lascaris  II.,    Greek    Emp., 

1259. 
Theodore  Metochita,  1332. 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  428. 
Theodore,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  646. 
Theodore  Studites,  814;  815;  826. 
Theodore  of  Tarsus,  376. 
Theodoret,  429  ;  456. 
Theodoric,  493  ;   518, 
Theodosian  Code,  438. 
Theodosius  I.,   Emp.    E.,    379;    380; 

388;   390;  sole  emp.,  394. 
Theodosius  II.,  Emp.  E.,  408  ;  415  ; 

429  ;  431  ;  433  ;  434  ;  442  ;  448. 
Theodosius  III.,  Emp.  E.,  716. 
Theoootian,  178. 

Theodotians,  Theodotus,  193;  203. 
Theodulph,  820. 
Theognostus,  261. 

Theology.    See  Doctrine  of  the  Church, 
Theonas,  325. 

Theophanes,  historian,  817. 
Theophanes  Ceramius,  1042. 
Theophanes,  Abp.  of  Nicaea,  1343. 
Theophilanthropic  Society,  1796;  1802. 
Theophilus   of  Alexandria,  401  ;  403  ; 

404  ;   412. 
Theophilus  of  Antioch,  178. 
Theophilus,  Emp.  E.,  829  ;  830. 
Theophylact,  1078. 
Thessalonians,  Epistles  to  the,  52. 
Theudas,  44. 
Thomas  Aquinas,    1245;    1253;    1260; 

1274. 
Thomas  of  Cantinpre,  1261. 


Thomas  a  Kempis,  1471. 

Thomists  and  Scotists,  1 299. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  1618;   1648. 

Thorn,  Conference  at,  1645. 

Thundering  Legion,  170. 

Tiberius  Alexander,  45. 

Tiberius  L,  Emp.,  33. 

Tiberius  II.,  Emp.  E.,  578. 

Tiberius  III.,  Emp.  E.,698. 

Tichonius,  362. 

Till,  S.,  1713. 

Tillotson,  John,  1694. 

Timothy    ,Elurus,   452;     457;    459; 

476. 
Timothy,  St.,  46  ;  50  ;  First  Epistle  to, 

64 ;   Second  Epistle,  65. 
Timour,  or    Tamerlane,    1369;    1380; 

1400;    1402;    1404. 
Tindal,  Matthew,  1730;   1733. 
Tithes,  end    of  2d  cent,  ;  end  of  4th 

cent.  ;  675;  740;  778;  791  ;   794; 

909;   1185;  1215.     See  also  Church 

Property. 
Tittman,  J.  A.  H.,  1832. 
Tittnann,  K.  C,  1820. 
Titus,  Emp.,  79. 
Titus,  Epistle  to,  64. 
Togrul  Beg,  1038  ;  1054. 
Toland,  J.,  1722. 
Toleration,  Act  of,  1779. 
Toleration,    Edict   of,    by    Constantine 

and  Licinius,  312. 
Toleration,   Edict  of,  by  the   Emperor 

Joseph,  1781. 
Toletus,  1596. 
Tollner,  J.  G.,  1774. 
Torgau,  Articles  of,  1530. 
Torgau,  Book  of,  1576. 
Torgau,  League  of,  1526. 
Torgau,  Visitation  Articles  of,  1592. 
Tostatus,  Alphonso,  1454. 
Totila,  541  ;   547. 
Trajan,  Emp.,  98. 
Transfiguration,  Feast  of  the,  1456. 
Transubstantiation.    See  Lord's  Supper. 
Travers  and  Hooker,  1585. 
Tremellius,  1548. 
Trent,   Council  of,  1544,   1545,  1546; 

1547;   1551  ;  1562;  1563. 
Treuga  Dei,  1035;  1041. 
Tria  Capitula,    Controversy  concerning 

the,  544 ;  546  ;  548 ;  551  ;   553. 
Tribonianus,  545. 
Triers,  Committee  of,  1654. 
Trinity,    Holy,  Festival  of  the,   1320; 

1405. 
Trinity,  Holy,  Order  of  the,  1 1 98. 
Trisagium,  463;   512. 
Trullari  Council,  690. 
Tumblers,  1724. 
Turlupins,  1210;   1372. 


K  K 


498 


INDEX. 


Turretin,  J.  A.,  1707  ;  1720 
Tyndal,  1526. 
Tzschirner,  H.  G.,  1828. 

U. 


1737. 


Uniformity,  Act  of,  1559  ;  1662 

• 

Ulpian, 

222. 

Ulphilas,  370 ;  375. 

Unigenitus,    the     Bull,    1711  ; 

1717 

1720; 

1725;    1728;    1730; 

1739 

1752. 

Union  of  Natures  in  Christ,  378 

;  446 

451. 

See  also  Monophysites. 

Unitarians,   1565;    1568;    1578; 

1592 

1620; 

1658;    1774;  1795; 

L808. 

Unitas  Fatrum.      See  Brethren. 

Universalists,  1780. 

Universities,  1158;  1206;  1222 

;  1228 

1245; 

1249;    1257;    1260; 

1289 

1298; 

1300;    1303;    1307; 

1308 

1311  ; 

1339;    1343;    1346; 

1348 

1361  ; 

1365 ;    1382  ;    1388  ; 

1391 

1392; 

1398;    1400;    1403; 

1409, 

1410; 

1411  ;     1419;    1426; 

1430; 

1431  ; 

1433  ;    1441  ;    1445  ; 

1450; 

1454; 

1456;    1460;    1463; 

1472  ; 

1474; 

1477  ;    1479  ;    1499  ; 

1502; 

1506; 

1521  ;    1527;    1532; 

1540; 

1544; 

1547 ;    1548  ;    1551  ; 

1552  ; 

1563; 

1564;   1565;    1566; 

1571  ; 

1575; 

1576;    1578;    1582; 

1585  ; 

1591'; 

1592;    1593;    1596; 

1600; 

1607; 

1614;    1621;    1625; 

1632; 

1635  ; 

1636;    1600;    1647; 

1648; 

1655; 

1665;    1668;    1670; 

1673; 

1694; 

1702;    1717;    1735; 

1743; 

1755  ; 

1781;    1786;    1803; 

1809; 

1810; 

1811  ;    1812;    1815; 

1816; 

1819; 

1827;    1828;    1834. 

Unni,  939. 

Ursicinus 
Ursinus, 

,  366. 
Z.,  1583. 

Ursulines 

,  Order  of,  1537. 

Urban  VI.,  Pope.,  1378. 

Usher,  Abp.,  1641  ;   1655. 

Utraquists,  1420. 

Uirecht, 

Church  of,  1823. 

Utrecht, 
Uytenbo^ 

Synod  of,  1763. 

jaert,  John,  1609;  1643 

Valens,  Emp.  E.,  364. 
Valentinian  I.,  Emp.  W.,  364. 
Valentinian    and     Gratian,  Emp.    W 

375. 
Valentinian  II.,  Emp.VV.,  388. 
Valentinian  III.,  Emp.  W.,  424. 
Valentinus,  140. 
Valerian,  Emp.,  253. 
Vallombrosa.  Order  of,  1038. 
Vanini,  1629. 


Vasquez,  Gabriel,  1604. 

Vater,  J.  S.,  1825. 

Veccus  (orBeccus),  John,  1724;  1282; 

1298. 
Venantius  Fortunatus,  600. 
Venema,  Herm.  1787. 
Verger,  Peter  Paul,  1548  ;   1565. 
Vespasian,  Emp.,  69. 
Vespers,  Sicilian,  1282. 
Vigilantius,  404. 
Vigilius,  Patriarch  of  Rome,  546  ;  548 ; 

551  ;   553. 
Vigilius  of  Thapsus,  485. 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,  1256. 
Vincent  of  Lerins,  434  ;  448. 
Vincent  de  Paula,  1631  ;   1660. 
Vincentius  Ferrarius,  1419. 
Viret,  Peter,  1528  ;  1536  ;  1539  ;  1571. 
Visitation,  Feast  of  the,  1389. 
Vitalian,  512;  514. 
Vitellius,  Emp.,  69. 
Vitiges,  536. 

Vitringa,  Campegius,  1722. 
Vives,  John  Ludovicus,  1541. 
Voetians.      See  Cocceian  Controversy 
Voetius,  Gisbert,  1658  ;   1677. 
Volket,  J.,  1618. 
Voltaire,  1732;   1778. 
Vossius,  G.  J.,  1649. 

W. 

Wagner,  F.,  1760. 

Wake,  William,  1717  ;  1737. 

Walafried  Strabo,  849. 

Walch,  C.  W.  F.,  1784. 

Waldenses,  1170;  1178;  1184;  1190; 

1206;    1210;    1309;     1375;    1487; 

1545;    1559;    1665;    1686;    1689. 
Waldo,  Peter,  1170;    1197. 
Walton,  Bryan,  1661. 
Wandsworth,  Presbytery  of,  1572. 
Warburton,  William,  1738;   1779. 
Warnefried,  Paul,  794;  799. 
Wars  in  France,  religious,  1562;   1567; 

1568;    1572;    1574;    1577;    1584; 

1627. 
Waterland,  Daniel,  1712;  1742. 
Watts,  Isaac,  1748. 
Weigel,  Valentine,  1588. 
Weill er,  Caj.,  1826. 
Weisman,  C.  E.,  1747. 
Weller,  J.,  1645;   1662. 
Wenceslaus,  E.  G.,  1378. 
Werenfels,  S.,  1740. 
Wernsdorf,  G.,  1728. 
Wesel,  John  of,  1479. 
Wesley,    John,     1728;     1731;     1735; 

1738;   1741;   1746;    1791. 
Wessel,  John,  1489. 
Westphal,  Joachim,  1552  ;    1554. 
Westphalia,  Peace  of,  1684. 


INDEX. 


499 


Wetstein,  J.  J.,  1754. 

Whiston,  William,  1712  ;   1752. 

Whitaker,  William,  1595. 

Whitby,  Daniel,  1726. 

White  Penitents,  1399. 

Whitfield,  George,  1731  ;   1738  ;  1741 ; 

1746;    1770. 
Whitgift,  1570;   1583. 
Wickliffe,   John,    1356;    1360;    1365; 

1370;     1372;    1374;    1376;     1378, 

1379;   1380;   1381;   1382;   1384. 
Wickliffe,    doctrines   and   followers   of, 

1396;     1402;    1404;     1408;   1409; 

1410;    1413;    1414;   1458. 
Wilfrid,  675. 
William  de   St.   Amour,    1231;   1256  j 

1260. 
William  de  Nogaret,  1303. 
Williams,  David,  1775. 
Willibrod,  690;  696;  718;  739. 
Wilson,  Thomas,  1755. 
Winfried.      See  Boniface. 
Wissowatius,  1677. 
Witsius,  Hermann,  1708. 
Wittemberg,  Concord  of,  1536. 
Wolf,  Christian,  1754. 
Wolf,  J.  C,  1738. 

Wolfenbuttel  Fragments,  1777;   1781. 
Wolsey,  Cardinal,  1509  ;   1529. 


Woolston,  Thomas,  1733. 
Worms,  Concordat  of,  1122. 
Worms,  Edict   of,   1521,  1522  ;   1524  ; 
1529. 

X. 

Xavier,  Francis,  1541 ;   1549 ;   1552. 
Ximenes,  Cardinal,  1495  ;    1520. 
Xiphilin,  John,  1078. 

Z. 

Zacharia?,  1777. 

Zacharias  Scholasticus,  518. 

Zanchius  Jerome,  1590. 

Zeltner,  G.  G.,  1738. 

Zeno,  E.  E.,  474  ;  476  ;  477;  478  ;  482 

Zenobia,  267  ;   272. 

Zerawitz,  Synod  of,  1616. 

Ziegenbalg,*  Bartholomew,  1704;  1719. 

Ziegler,  W.  K.  L.,  1809. 

Zimmerman,  E.,  1832. 

Zinzendorf,  Count,  1709;  1722;  1727; 

1760. 
Ziska,  1417;   1424. 
Zollikoffer,  G.  J.,  1788. 
Zurich,  Disputation  at,  1523. 
Zwickaw,  fanatics  of,  1522. 
Zwingle,    Ulric,    1484;     1519;     1523; 

1525:   1531. 


THE    END. 


CORRECTIONS. 

Page  83.  line  20.,  and  page  84.  line  13.,  for  " —  and  380,"  read  "  381." 
111.  line  6.  for  "  III. "  read  "  77." 
143.  line  27.  for  "409,"  read  "407." 
155.  line  7.  for  "  Cyrrhus,"  read  "Pyrrhus." 
—    line  11.  for  "467,"  read  "  647." 
158.  line  17.  for  "XIV."  read  « IV" 
164.  line  14.  for  "  777."  read  "  II." 
169.  line  2.  insert  +  before  "  John  of  Damascus." 
195.  lines  27,  28.  for  "  Olaf  Trygvesen  —  without  effect,"  read  "  Iceland  was 

discovered  about  this  time,  and  received  some   superficial  knowledge 

of  Christianity." 
216.  line  21.  for  "  77."  read  « III." 
221.  line  1.  for  " IX"  read  "XL  ;"  and   transpose   "  1059,  Order,  fyc."  to 

"  1095." 
223.  line  4.  for  » III."  read  "  IF." 
265.  line  13.  for  "  II."  read  «  III." 
270.  line  15.  for  "  Berghards,"  read  "  Beghards." 
272.  line  18.  for  "IV."  read  "  77." 
288.  line  4.  for  "on,"  read  "or." 
302.  line  1.  for  "  1494,"  read  "  1404." 
313.  line  21.  for  "  XI."  read  "  XII." 
379.  line  27.  for  "  Budaeus,"  read  "  Budnams." 
393.  line  11.  for  "  Chamer,"  read  "  Chamier." 
402.  line  25.  for  "  Murasus,"  read  "  Musams." 
414.  line  6.  for  "  Gilbert,"  read  "  Gisbert." 
429.  Transpose  line  12.  to  line  6. 
446.  line  1.  fur  "  Henmann,"  read  "  Heumann." 


London : 

Printed  by  A.  Spottiswoode, 

New-  Street-  Square. 


LIBRARY   OF  CONGRESS 

0  022  011  832  0 


jjfPPfBI 


■'■"■■ 


.•■■■-•..